Meaning and grammar do not always go together. Not all active verbs have ‘active’ meanings; for instance, if you say that somebody receives something or suffers, you are really saying that something is done to him/her.
✍🏽 Compare:
They built this house in 1486.
This house was built in 1486.
Most Austrians speak German.
German is spoken by most Austrians.
A friend of ours is repairing the roof.
The roof is being repaired by a friend of ours.
This book will change your life.
Your life will be changed by this book.
When A does something to B, there are often two ways to talk about it.
If we want A (the ‘doer’ or ‘agent’) to be the subject, we use an active verb: built, speak, is repairing, will change.
If we want B (the ‘receiver’ of the action) to be the subject, we use a passive verb: was built, is spoken, is being repaired, will be changed.
The object of an active verb corresponds to the subject of a passive verb.
In most cases, the subject of an active verb is not expressed in the corresponding passive sentence. If it does have to be expressed, this usually happens in an expression with by; the noun is called the ‘agent’ .
This house was built in 1486 by Sir John Latton.
Meaning and grammar do not always go together. Not all active verbs have ‘active’ meanings; for instance, if you say that somebody receives something or suffers, you are really saying that something is done to him/her.
Some English active verbs might be translated by passive or reflexive verbs in certain other languages:
e.g.
My shoes are wearing out; She is sitting; Suddenly the door opened.
And some English passives might be translated by active or reflexive verbs:
e.g.
I was born in 1956; English is spoken here.
Some verbs can be used in both active and passive forms with similar meanings: for example to worry / to be worried; to drown / to be drowned .
Sometimes active and passive infinitives can be used with very similar meanings, for example:
There’s a lot of work to do / to be done .
And some active verbs can have both active and passive meanings, for example:
She opened the door / The door opened.
For -ing forms with passive meanings after need and want (e.g. My watch needs cleaning).
Do you know what’s wrong with these, and why !?!?
❌I was very interesting in the lesson.
❌She has put in prison for life.
❌Tact is lacked by your mother.
❌He was shot by a rifle.
❌Our house got built in 1827.
❌The children were explained the problem.
❌We were suggested a meeting place.
❌I don’t like to be shouted.
❌He was thrown stones at.
❌She was broken her mirror.
❌That she was a spy was thought by nobody.
❌It is expected to make a profit this year.
❌They say his company to be in trouble.
❌Doris was wanted to be the manager.
❌Emily telling everybody what to do annoyed me.
📝 When do we use passive structures?
We often choose passive structures when we want to talk about an action, but are not so interested in saying (or not able to say) who or what does/did it.
Passives without ‘agents’ are common in academic and scientific writing for this reason.
Those pyramids were built around 400 AD.
Too many books have been written about the Second World War.
The results have not yet been analysed.
2) Putting the news at the end
We often prefer to begin a sentence with something that is already known, or that we are already talking about, and to put the ‘news’ at the end. This is another common reason for choosing passive structures.
✍🏽 Compare:
Jack’s painting my portrait. (active verb so that the ‘news’ – the portrait – can go at the end)
‘Nice picture.’ ‘Yes, it was painted by my grandmother.’ (passive verb so that the ‘news’ – the painter – can go at the end)
In order to keep talking about the same person or thing, it may be necessary to switch from active to passive and back.
He waited for two hours; then he was seen by a doctor; then he was sent back to the waiting room. He sat there for another two hours – by this time he was getting angry. Then he was taken upstairs and examined by a specialist, after which he had to wait for another hour before he was allowed to go home.
(More natural than He waited for two hours; then a doctor saw him …)
4) Putting heavier expressions at the end
Longer and heavier expressions often go at the end of a clause, and this can also be a reason for choosing a passive structure.
I was annoyed by Emily wanting to tell everybody what to do. (More natural than Emily wanting to tell everybody what to do annoyed me – the phrase Emily … do would make a very long subject.)
In a passive clause, we usually use by to introduce the agent – the person or thing that does the action, or that causes what happens.
(Note, however, that agents are mentioned in only about 20 per cent of passive clauses.)
All the trouble was caused by your mother.
These carpets are made by children who work twelve hours a day.
Some past participles can be more like adjectives than verbs, for example: shocked, worried, frightened.
After these, we often use other prepositions instead of by. (And such structures are not really passives, but examples of be + adjective.)
I was shocked at/by your attitude.
We were worried about/by her silence.
Are you frightened of spiders?
With is used when we talk about an instrument which is used by an agent to do an action.
He was shot (by the policeman) with a rifle.
✍🏽 Participle: -ing and -ed forms used like adjectives:
When -ing forms are used in similar ways to adjectives, they are called ‘present participles’.
Forms like broken, sung, opened, started are called ‘past participles’. But note that both forms can be used for the past, present or future.
We were nearly hit by falling rocks.
We haven’t got a single working computer in the office.
The house is going to be full of screaming children.
I was taken to hospital with a broken arm.
These cakes are beautifully cooked.
Daniel will be surprised to see you.
(The same terms are used when these forms are used as parts of verb tenses.)
When -ing forms are used like adjectives, they have similar meanings to active verbs.
falling leaves (= leaves that fall)
a meat-eating animal (= an animal that eats meat)
Most past participles have passive meanings when they are used like adjectives.
a broken heart (= a heart that has been broken)
The house looked abandoned. (= … as if it had been abandoned.)
3) Participles and Adjectives: interested and interesting, etc
Some adjectives look like present or past participles (and the difference between adjectives and participles is not always clear). They are discussed here for convenience.
These adjectives, too, may have an active/passive contrast. For example, interesting, boring, exciting and confusing have active meanings: they describe things that interest people, bore them and so on. Interested, bored, etc have passive meanings: they show how people are made to feel.
The lesson was really interesting.
I was very interested in the lesson. (NOT I was very interesting in the lesson.)
It was a terribly boring party.
I didn’t enjoy the party because I was bored. (NOT … because I was boring.)
Granny takes the kids to exciting places.
The kids get excited when Granny comes. (NOT … The kids get exciting …)
He’s a very confusing writer.
She explained everything, but I was still very confused. (NOT … very confusing.)
4) Active Past Participles: a fallen leaf; advanced students
Some past participles can be used as adjectives with active meanings before nouns.
a fallen leaf (= a leaf that has fallen)
advanced students
developed countries
increased activity
vanished civilisations
a retired general
a collapsed building
a grown-up daughter
an escaped prisoner
faded colours
swollen ankles
Most of these can be used after be.
She is retired now.
My family are all grown up.
Those curtains are badly faded.
This class is the most advanced.
My wrist is swollen.
Some others are used after be, but not before nouns.
Why are all those cars stopped at the crossroads? (BUT NOT … a stopped car)
I hope you’re fully recovered from your operation.
We’re camped in the field across the stream.
I’ll be finished in a few minutes.
Those days are gone now.
Sat and stood are often used like this in informal speech in British English.
When I saw her she was sat on the ground crying.
Why is that man stood in the doorway?
A few past participles are used with active meanings in expressions with adverbials but not otherwise.
a well-read person (BUT NOT a read person)
a much-travelled man
recently-arrived immigrants
The train just arrived at platform six is the delayed 13.15 from Hereford.
5) Compound Structures: English-speaking Canadians
✍🏽 Participles used as adjectives can have objects. Note the word order.
English-speaking Canadians.
(NOT speaking-English Canadians.)
a fox-hunting man
Is that watch self-winding?
Other compound structures with participles are also common before nouns.
quick-growing trees
home-made cake
a recently-built house
government-inspired rumours
the above-mentioned point
6) After Nouns: the people questioned
We often use participles after nouns in order to define or identify the nouns, in the same way as we use identifying relative clauses.
We couldn’t agree on any of the problems discussed. (= … the problems that were discussed.) (NOT … the discussed problems.)
The people questioned gave very different opinions. (= The people who were questioned …) (NOT The questioned people …)
I watched the match because I knew some of the people playing. (NOT … the playing people.)
I got the only ticket left. (NOT … the only left ticket.)
Those is often used with a participle to mean ‘the ones who are/were’.
Most of those questioned refused to answer.
Those selected will begin training on Monday.
A few participles change their meaning according to their position.
---- a concerned expression (= a worried expression)
---- the people concerned (= the people who are/were affected)
---- an involved explanation (= a complicated explanation)
---- the people involved (= the same as the people concerned)
--- an adopted child (= a child who is brought up by people who are not his/her biological parents)
--- the solution adopted (= the solution that is/was chosen)
8) much admired; very frightened
When a past participle is part of a passive verb, we can put much or very much before it, but not very.
He’s (very) much admired by his students. (NOT … very admired …)
Britain’s trade position has been (very) much weakened by inflation. (NOT … very weakened …)
When a past participle is used as an adjective, we usually prefer very. This is common with words referring to mental states, feelings and reactions.
--- a very frightened animal (NOT a much frightened animal)
--- a very shocked expression
The children were very bored.
She looked very surprised.
That’s Alice, unless I’m (very) much mistaken. (NOT … unless I’m very mistaken.)
He’s well known in the art world. (NOT … very known …)
With amused, very and (very) much are both possible.
I was very amused / much amused / very much amused by Miranda’s performance.
9) frightened by / frightened of
By is used after passive verbs to introduce the agent (the person or thing that does the action.
Most of the damage was caused by your sister.
After past participles that are used like adjectives, we prefer other prepositions.
--- She was frightened by a mouse that ran into the room. (Frightened is part of a passive verb referring to an action.)
--- She’s always been terribly frightened of dying. (Frightened is an adjective referring to a state of mind.)
--- The kids were so excited by the music that they kept screaming.
--- Joe’s excited about the possibility of going to the States.
--- I was annoyed by the way she spoke to me.
--- I’m annoyed with you.
--- The burglar was surprised by the family coming home unexpectedly.
--- I’m surprised at/by your attitude.
--- He was badly shocked by his fall.
--- We were shocked at/by the prices in London.
His whereabouts are known to the police.
The hills are covered in snow.
The room was filled with thick smoke.
10) Special Past Participle Forms:
A few older forms of past participles are still used as adjectives before nouns in certain expressions.
drunken laughter/singing, etc
a shrunken head
a sunken wreck/ship, etc
rotten fruit/vegetables, etc
It can be done tomorrow.
Modal structures can be passivised.
We can do it tomorrow. → It can be done tomorrow.
They may close the hospital. → The hospital may be closed.
An interesting, rather complicated point about modal verbs is that their meaning usually ‘spreads over’ a whole clause. This means that one can change a modal structure from active to passive, for example, without affecting the meaning very much.
--- A child could understand his theory.
--- His theory could be understood by a child.
--- You shouldn’t put adverbs between the verb and the object.
--- Adverbs shouldn’t be put between the verb and the object.
--- Dogs may chase cats.
--- Cats may get chased by dogs.
With most other verbs that are followed by infinitives, their meaning is attached to the subject, so that a change from active to passive changes the sense of the sentence completely. Compare:
Dogs like to chase cats.
Cats like to be chased by dogs. (different and – of course – untrue)
Dan wants to phone Anna.
Anna wants to be phoned by Dan. (not the same meaning)
He got caught.
Get + past participle can be used to make passive structures in the same way as be + past participle.
This structure is mostly used in an informal style. It is often used to talk about events that happen by accident, unexpectedly, or outside one’s control, and that have good or bad consequences.
I get paid on Fridays.
She’s always getting invited to parties.
My watch got broken while I was playing with the children.
He got caught by the police speeding through the town centre.
The passive with be is preferred for longer, more deliberate, planned actions.
The Emperor Charlemagne was crowned in the year 800. (It would be strange to say Charlemagne got crowned …)
The new school will be opened by the Prime Minister on May 25th.
Our house was built in 1827.
✍🏽 verbs with two objects in the passive
Many verbs, such as give, send, show, lend, pay, promise, refuse, tell, offer, can be followed by two objects, an ‘indirect object’ and a ‘direct object’. These usually refer to a person (indirect object) and a thing (direct object). Two structures are possible.
A. Verb + indirect object + direct object
She gave her sister the car.
I had already shown the police officer Sam’s photo.
B. Verb + direct object + preposition + indirect object
She gave the car to her sister.
I had already shown Sam’s photo to the police officer.
Both of these structures can be made passive.
A. Indirect object becomes subject of passive verb
Her sister was given the car.
The police officer had already been shown Sam’s photo.
B. direct object becomes subject of passive verb
The car was given to her sister.
Sam’s photo had already been shown to the police officer
The choice between the two passive structures may depend on what has been said before, or on what needs to be put last in the sentence.
Structure A (e.g. Her sister was given the car) is the more common of the two.
I’ve just been sent a whole lot of information.
You were lent ten thousand pounds last year.
The visitors were shown a collection of old manuscripts.
They are being paid a lot of money for doing very little.
He was refused a visa because he had been in prison.
We will never be told the real truth.
How much have you been offered?
In structure B (e.g. The car was given to her sister), prepositions are sometimes dropped before indirect object pronouns.
This watch was given (to) me by my father.
Explain and suggest cannot be used in structure A.
✅ The problem was explained to the children. (BUT NOT The children were explained the problem.❌❌)
✅ A meeting place was suggested to us. (BUT NOT We were suggested a meeting place.❌❌)
Note that prepositional phrases like ‘to the police officer’ are not called ‘indirect objects’ in all grammars.
✍️ verbs with prepositions in the passive
1) The plan has been looked at carefully.
The objects of prepositional verbs can become subjects in passive structures.
We have looked at the plan carefully. → The plan has been looked at carefully.
Nobody listens to her. → She is never listened to.
Somebody has paid for your meal. → Your meal has been paid for.
Note the word order. The preposition cannot be dropped.
I don’t like to be shouted at. (NOT I don’t like to be shouted.)
If there is already a direct object, the second object (after the preposition) cannot become a passive subject.
They threw stones at him. → Stones were thrown at him. (BUT NOT He was thrown stones at.❌)
They stole a bicycle from him. → A bicycle was stolen from him. (BUT NOT He was stolen a bicycle from.❌)
They poured water on us. → Water was poured on us. (BUT NOT We were poured water on.❌)
Note that possessive nouns or pronouns cannot become passive subjects, either.
They called Mr Archer’s name. → Mr Archer’s name was called. (BUT NOT Mr Archer was name called.❌)
I broke her mirror. → Her mirror was broken. (BUT NOT She was broken her mirror.)
Verbs like give, send, lend can have two objects with no preposition
(e.g. They gave him a gold watch).
For the passive of this structure (e.g. He was given a gold watch, A gold watch was given to him).
For structures with have + object + past participle (e.g. We had water poured on us).
✍🏽 Causative and Similar Structures with have
Have can be followed by object + infinitive (without to), object + -ing, and object + past participle.
1) Causative: have somebody do/doing something
Have + object + infinitive can mean ‘cause somebody to do something’. This is mostly used in American English, to talk about giving instructions or orders.
I’m ready to see Mr Smith. Have him come in, please.
The manager had everybody fill out a form.
The structure with an -ing form can mean ‘cause somebody to be doing something’ (BrE and AmE).
He had us laughing all through the meal.
For get + object + infinitive (meaning ‘persuade somebody/something to do something’).
2) Causative: have something done
Have + object + past participle can mean ‘cause something to be done by somebody else’. The past participle has a passive meaning.
I must have my watch repaired. (= I want my watch to be repaired.)
I’m going to have my hair cut this afternoon. (= I want my hair to be cut.)
If you don’t get out of my house I’ll have you arrested.
Get is used in a similar structure.
3) experience: have something happen/happening
In the structure have + object + infinitive/…ing, have can mean ‘experience’.
I had a very strange thing happen to me when I was fourteen.
We had a tax inspector come to the office yesterday.
It’s lovely to have children playing in the garden again.
I looked up and found we had water dripping through the ceiling.
Note the difference between the infinitive in the first two examples (for things that happened), and the -ing form in the last two (for things that are/were happening). This is like the difference between simple and progressive tenses.
4) experience: We had our roof blown off.
Have + object + past participle can also be used in the sense of ‘experience’. Again, the past participle has a passive meaning.
We had our roof blown off in the storm.
I had my car stolen last week.
I won’t have + object + verb form can mean ‘I won’t allow …’
I won’t have you telling me what to do.
I won’t have my house turned into a hotel.
1) Clause Objects: Nobody thought that she was a spy.
Some sentences have clauses as their objects. These cannot normally become the subjects of passive sentences.
Nobody thought that she was a spy. (BUT NOT That she was a spy was thought by nobody.)
We felt that he was the right man for the job. (BUT NOT That he was … was felt.)
The newspapers say that his company is in trouble. (BUT NOT That his company is in trouble is said …)
However, passive structures are often possible with preparatory it.
It was thought that she was a spy.
It was felt that he was the right man for the job.
It is said that his company is in trouble.
2) Infinitive Objects: They decided to …
A few verbs that are followed by infinitives (for example decide, agree) can also be used in passive structures beginning with it.
They decided to meet at twelve. → It was decided to meet at twelve.
We agreed to open a new branch. → It was agreed to open a new branch.
However, most verbs cannot be used in this way.
NOT It is started to make a profit. OR It is not expected to rain today.
✍️ He was considered a genius.
After some verbs the direct object can be followed by an ‘object complement’ – a noun or adjective which describes or classifies the object.
Queen Victoria considered him a genius.
They elected Mrs Sanderson President.
We all regarded Kathy as an expert.
Most people saw him as a sort of clown.
The other children called her stupid.
You’ve made the house beautiful.
In passive clauses these are ‘subject complements’; they come after the verb.
He was considered a genius by Queen Victoria.
Mrs Sanderson was elected President.
Kathy was regarded as an expert.
He was seen as a sort of clown.
She was called stupid by the other children.
The house has been made beautiful.
Some verbs refer to actions that produce a finished result.
Examples are cut, build, pack, close. Other verbs do not: for example push, live, speak, hit, carry. The past participles of finished-result verbs, and some of their passive tenses, can have two meanings. They can refer to the action, or they can describe the result (rather like adjectives).
The theatre was closed by the police on the orders of the mayor. (refers to the action of closing)
When I got there I found that the theatre was closed. (refers to the state of being shut – the result of the action)
Because of this, be + past participle can have a similar meaning to a present perfect passive.
The vegetables are all cut up – what shall I do now? (= The vegetables have all been cut up …)
I got caught in the rain and my suit’s ruined. (= … has been ruined.)
I think your ankle is broken. (= … has been broken.)
My suitcase is packed. (= … has been packed.)
✍️ be + passive infinitive:
----- It is not to be removed.
Be + passive infinitive is often used in notices and instructions.
✍️ am/are/is (not) to be + past participle
This cover is not to be removed.
To be taken three times a day after meals. (on a medicine bottle)
Some other common expressions with
be + passive infinitive:
There’s nothing to be done.
She was nowhere to be found.
I looked out of the window, but there was nothing to be seen.
✍🏽 Perfect, Passive and Negative -ing Forms
Note the structure of perfect, passive and negative -ing forms.
Having slept for twelve hours, I felt marvellous. (perfect)
She loves being looked at. (passive)
Not knowing what to do, I went home. (negative)
She’s angry about not having been invited. (negative perfect passive)
✍️ Verbs Not Used in the Passive
Not all verbs can have passive forms. Passive structures are impossible with intransitive verbs like die or arrive, which cannot have objects, because there is nothing to become the subject of a passive sentence. Some transitive verbs, too, are seldom used in the passive. Most of these are ‘stative verbs’ (verbs which refer to states, not actions). Examples are fit, have, lack, resemble, suit.
They have a nice house. (BUT NOT A nice house is had by them.)
My shoes don’t fit me. (BUT NOT I’m not fitted by my shoes.)
Sylvia resembles a Greek goddess. (BUT NOT A Greek goddess is resembled by Sylvia.)
Your mother lacks tact. (BUT NOT Tact is lacked by your mother.)
She was having a bath. (BUT NOT A bath was being had by her.)
Students often confuse active and passive verb forms in English.
Typical mistakes:
I was very interesting in the lesson.
We were questioning by the immigration officer.
She has put in prison for life.
These houses build in wood.
We are write to each other in English.
The play performed in the evening.
This exhibition will be visit 5 million people.
✍️ Mistakes like these are not surprising, because:
1. Be is used in both passive verb forms and active progressive tenses.
2. Past participles are used in both passive verb forms and active perfect tenses. Compare:
He was calling. (active – past progressive)
He was called. (passive – simple past)
He has called. (active – present perfect)
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