❒ Verbs are divided into two main classes:—
(a) When a verb is used independently, it is called a Principal Verb: call, go, work, etc.
(b) When a verb is used only to help some other verb to form voices, moods and tenses, it is called an Auxiliary Verb (auxiliary=helping). The only verbs that can be so used are can, be, have, shall, will, may, do.
❒ NOTE:
(a) Let also is an "auxiliary supplying 1st and 3rd persons of an imperative in exhortations (let us play), commands (ler it be done at once), assumptions (let AB=CD), and permissions (let him do this work)" —
POD.
(b) Some regard can as a principal verb, with the Infinitive without to following it as its object. He can do (=to do) it. But both POD and COD treat it as an Auxiliary only.
(a) Transitive verbs are those that require an the sense clear: He did this. I love him. Who made it?
NOTE: Some transitive verbs (like, tell, teach, ask, show, give, send, etc.) take two objects, Direct and Indirect.
(b) Intransitive verbs are those that do not require any object to make the sense clear:
He sleeps. I run. Birds fly.
❒ Causative Verbs are intransitive verbs used transitively in the sense of causing a thing to be done. A few intransitive verbs have different forms to express the causative idea; as, set for sit, fell for fall, etc.
❒ Factitive Verbs are Transitive Verbs of Incomplete Predication. They are usually of naming, making and thinking and require some other word or words besides their objects to complete the sense:
He called me a fool.
They made him king.
❒ NOTE: The word or words that are required to complete the sense are called Complements.
❒ Copulative Verbs are Intransitive Verbs of Incomplete Predication, requiring some other word or words besides the predicate verb to complete the sense:
He is ill. She seems tired.
❒ Quasi-Passive Verbs are verbs used in the Active Voice with a Passive force
Rice sells (=is sold) cheap.
This fruit tastes sweet (=is sweet when it is tasted).
❒ Impersonal Verbs are those that do not indicate the source of the action, but are used in one person only, chiefly in the third person, singular, with the pronoun it as the Indefinite subject: It rains. It snows.
❒ Subjective Complements:— Complements of Intransitive and Passive verbs relate to the Subject and are called Subjective Complements:
He is a fool.
I was made President.
❒ NOTE: The common intransitive verbs requiring such complements are the verbs to be, become, seem, appear, remain, look, grow. They are called verbs of Incomplete Predication.
He is angry with me.
He became alert.
You seem displeased.
He looks miserable.
He remains discontented.
He grew up quite healthy.
The verbs to be, look, grow, remain, become, etc., can also be used as verbs of complete predication: God is. Look at me. This plant will not grow. Remain there.
Such a conduct does not become you.
Complements of Transitive and Active verbs relate to the Object and are called Objective Complements
I struck him dead. I saw him go.
❒ NOTE: Verbs of naming (name, call, term, etc.), making (make, create, appoint etc.) and thinking (think, consider, suppose, believe, etc.), generally take objective complements:
He called me a fool.
We named him Ramesh.
He made me miserable.
They appointed (or elected) me Chairman.
I consider him honest.
He thinks the man spiteful.
The objective complement may be used after other verbs too:
I cut him short.
He bought the house new.
He painted the house red.
❒ Prepositional or Group Verbs are verbs which, grouped with prepositions, are used as single transitive verbs:
He laughed at them.
He acted on this rule.
❒❒ A Transitive verb becomes Intransitive, when
(a) The verb is used in such a general sense that the object can be easily understood from the context:
Fire burns.
We eat to live.
(b) The reflexive pronoun is omitted:
Move (yourself) aside.
He keeps (himself) aloof.
He drew (himself) near me.
(c) An adverb is added to the verb:
Cholera has broken out.
(d) The verb is used quasi-passively:
Rice sells cheap.
❒❒ An Intransitive verb becomes transitive when it is used
(a) Grouped with preposition:
He laughs at me.
We act on this rule.
(b) In a causal sense:
He flies (causes to fly) a kite.
I grow this (cause to grow) corn in my field.
(c) With over and with placed before it :
We withstood the attack.
He overcame the difficulties.
(d) With a Reflexive or Personal object: They sat them down.
(e) With a Cognate object:
He ran a race.
❒ NOTE: There are five different forms of the cognate object:
(i) Strictly cognate, both in form and in meaning:
He lived a happy life.
He dreamt a dream.
We sang a song.
(ii) Strictly cognate in meaning, but not in form:
He went a long way.
They fought a battle.
(iii) Partially cognate, containing a noun descriptive of the cognate noun understood:
They shouted applause (=shouted a shout of applause).
He ran a great risk (a course of great risk).
He had grope his way (make his way by groping).
(iv) An adjective qualifying the cognate noun understood:
He did his best (doing).
He breathed his last (breath).
He tried his hardest (trial or attempt).
(v) Cognate noun expressed by "it":
We must fight it (=the fight) out.
They lorded it (acted the part of the lord) over us.
❒ 1. Pick out the verbs and state whether they are Transitive or Intransitive. In case of Transitive Verbs, pick out the Objects:—
I know the boy who is there.
The sun shines in the sky and gives us light.
He went home and gave a doll to his sister.
Put the lamp on the table.
He came yesterday and finished the work.
The boy hurt himself.
The horse can run fast.
Tell the truth if you would win respect.
He cut his finger with a knife.
He told me the story.
Cows eat grass.
The teacher rebuked her for she had not done her lesson.
Every body loves a good boy.
He lived a long life.
The tiger killed a goat and carried it away.
❒ 2. In the following examples, pick out the verbs, complements, and objects:—
I saw Ram go home.
He has a pen to write with.
I ran a race.
I made him prisoner.
I played the fool.
He fought his best.
He laughed a loud laugh.
It blows a heavy gale.
Rice sells very dear.
This fruit tastes sweet.
Your argument hears very sound.
Fare thee well.
He is flying a kite.
I have no time.
He has done his best, but I have done nothing.
I like a fool to be punished.
They found me asleep.
He did me a great kindness.
They laughed at me.
I struck the snake dead.
He was selected Captain.
This was told me by him.
They found him guilty.
