A comma (,) is an extremely common punctuation
mark and yet the use of commas causes
a great deal of concern and confusion in many people. This is partly because the use of commas has changed
quite a bit in recent times.
In modern usage
there is a tendency to adopt a system of minimal punctuation and one of the
casualties of this change has been the comma. Most people use the comma
considerably less frequently than was formerly the case.
The comma
has two major functions, that of linking and separating.
The comma as separating device in lists
One of the common separating
functions of the comma concerns
lists. The individual items in a list of three or more items are separated by
commas. Whether a comma is put before the word and which follows the second-last item is now a matter of choice.
Some people dislike the use of the comma in this situation, sometimes called
the Oxford comma or serial comma, and, indeed, it was
formerly considered wrong. However, it has become very common in British English and is even more common
in American English. It is best to insert such a comma if there is any
possibility of confusion arising from its omission.
In the following
sentences the underlined words form lists containing commas:
At the sports club we can
play tennis, squash, badminton and table tennis.
We need to buy bread,
milk, fruit and sugar.
They are studying French,
German, Spanish and Russian.
We opened the door, let
ourselves in, fed the cat and started to cook a meal.
The comma as a separating device in a list of adjectives
In cases where there is a list of adjectives before
a noun, the use of commas between the adjectives is now optional although it
was formerly standard practice. Thus the sentences
She wore a long, red,
sequinned dress.
She wore a long red sequinned
dress.
are both considered correct
these days. When the adjective immediately before the noun has a closer
relationship with it than the other adjectives, and indeed often helps to
define the noun, no comma should be used before that adjective, as in the
sentences
We want to buy some large
juicy green peppers.
and
They live in a beautiful old
fishing village.
It would be quite wrong to
place a comma before the word green
in the first sentence or before the word fishing
in the second sentence.
NB: Last
item in a list
Confusion may arise if the
last item in the list contains the word and
used in its own right as an essential part of the sentence, as in:
In the pub they served ham salad, shepherd’s pie, omelette, and pie and
chips.
In such cases it as well to
put a comma before the final connecting and
to avoid confusion.
If the list of items is a
very long one or the items in the list consist of several words a semicolon is sometimes used instead of
a comma (see semicolon).
Commas are not normally used to separate main clauses and relative clauses (see 2), where the relative clause is an essential part of
the sentence and not an additional piece
of information, as in:
The woman whom I met was a
friend’s sister.
In other words, a defining relative clause is not
separated from the main clause by a comma.
However, commas
are used to separate the main clause from a relative clause which is not
required to identify the person or thing that you are talking about, but which
is simply giving additional information, as in:
My father, who lived in
London, died early last year.
In other words, where a non-defining relative clause divides
the parts of a main clause the clause is placed within commas.
Commas and subordinate clauses
Commas are not now usually used to separate main clauses and subordinate clauses (see 3, 4) as in:
He left when we arrived
and
They came to the party
although we didn’t expect them to.
However, if the subordinate
clause precedes the main clause, it is sometimes followed by a comma. This is
especially true if it is a reasonably long clause, as in:
Although we stopped and thought about it for quite a long time, we still
made the wrong decision.
If the clause is quite short, a comma is not usually inserted, as in:
Although it rained we had a
good holiday.
and
If you go you will regret it.
The comma is never used to separate a main clause from a clause
beginning with that, as in I knew very well that I was right.
However, as is the case with all lists, commas are used to separate clauses
beginning with that if there are
several of them, as in:
Police know that the bankrobbers were armed, that they wore balaclavas
to conceal their faces, that they were all of medium height and that they
escaped in a blue transit van.
NB: To
avoid confusion
It is important to insert a comma between a subordinate clause and a main clause if doing so prevents any
possibility of confusion.
For example, confusion can
arise when a subordinate clause ends with a verb and the following clause
begins with a noun, as in:
After the pupils had finished reading, the books were returned to the
school library.
Here the use of the comma is an aid to clarity.
Otherwise you could read the
first part of the sentence as After the pupils had finished reading the
books ...
The comma as a separating device in clauses joined by
coordinating conjunctions
A comma may be used to separate main
clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (see 3) but this is not usual if
the clauses have the same subject and the coordinating
conjunction is and, as in She swept the floor and dusted the table.
In cases where
the subjects are different and the clauses are fairly long, it is best to
insert a comma, as in They took with them
all the furniture and appliances and
anything of any value, and she was left with nothing.
When the
coordinating conjunction is but, the
use of a comma to mark off the main clause is more a matter of choice,
especially when both clauses are quite long.
NB: To
avoid repetition
A comma can be inserted to
avoid repeating a verb in the second of two clauses, as in:
He plays golf and tennis, his brother rugby.
The comma as separating device with initial phrases
A comma is often used to separate an adverb or an adverbial
phrase at the beginning of a sentence from the rest of the sentence, as
with However in:
The weather was not great and it rained a lot. However, we had an
interesting and enjoyable holiday.
Nowadays, the use of a comma in such situations is sometimes
considered optional. However, it is essential to insert a comma if there is any
possibility of confusion.
For example, in the sentence
Normally, intelligent
students will attend their lectures on a regular basis.
the meaning is changed
slightly by the omission of the comma. The longer the expression is, the more
likely it is to need a comma after
it, as in:
After a great deal of
consideration, I decided to accept the invitation.
The comma with terms of address
Commas are
always used to separate terms of address
from the rest of the sentence,
as in the following sentences:
Mary, I’m afraid I have some
bad news for you about your proposed holiday.
Please come this way, Mrs
Brown.
Thanks a lot, John.
Now, ladies, what can I get
you?
Right, James, I’m ready to
leave now.
Doctor Jones, I have an
important call for you.
The comma is used to separate
a tag question from the rest of
a sentence, as in
It’s a beautiful day, isn’t
it?
You do love him, don’t you?
He still smokes, doesn’t he?
She’s not happy, is she?
We can still go, can’t we?
They’ve won again, haven’t
they?
It isn’t raining again, is
it?
The comma is used to separate an interjection
from the rest of a sentence, as in the following sentences:
Look, there’s the train
coming.
Heavens, I’ve never seen such
heavy rain!
Wait, she’s here now!
Gosh, I’m going to be late!
The comma used in pairs as a means of separation or parenthesis
The comma is used in pairs to separate phrases or words that are
naturally cut off from the main sense of the rest of the sentence, as if they
were additional thoughts or qualifications to what is being said in the rest of
the sentence, as in:
The project was, on the
whole, successful.
In such a sentence the clause
within the commas can be removed without altering the basic meaning. In this
respect the use of a pair of commas resembles the use of brackets.
The underlined
expressions in the following sentences illustrate this use of the comma:
Jim, sensible as ever,
told them both to talk things over.
My first impression of him, to
be honest, was not very favourable.
We realized, nevertheless,
that we could still face problems.
I knew, of course,
that something might still go wrong.
I knew all
too well, in fact, that he was not telling the truth.
NB: Use
both commas
Care should be taken to
include both commas. It is easy to forget to include the second one of the
pair.
The comma with nouns or phrases in apposition
A noun or noun phrase is said
to be in apposition when it is placed next to another noun or noun phrase and provides
further information about it, especially by saying something that identifies or
describes them. In such a situation, the main noun or phrase and the amplifying
noun or phrase refer to the same person or thing.
When such a noun
or noun phrase is placed after the main noun or noun phrase in the sentence, a
comma is almost always placed after the main noun or noun phrase to separate it
from the amplifying noun or noun phrase, as in:
Dan Jones, the well-known racing driver, has been involved in a serious
car accident.
However, when the amplifying
noun or noun phrase is placed before the main noun or noun phrase it is now
usual to omit the comma between them when the noun phrases involved are very
short, as in:
My son Mike lives with us.
and
The singer Joan Green gave a
short recital.
When the noun phrases involved are quite long,
it is best to include the comma, as in:
The person who suggested the
scheme, Jim Blunt, has now left the company.
In the following sentences the underlined words are in apposition:
Jack Blair, our managing
director, has resigned.
Sue Brown, leader of the
protest campaign, has given a statement to the press.
Peter
Shaw, my cousin’s husband, is representing the family.
Mike Black, our local
Labour MP, has stated his opposition to the scheme.
The head of the local primary
school, Jane Lewis, is very much in favour of improved sports facilities.
My elder brother’s latest
girlfriend, Liz Grant, is quite a famous fashion model.
The writer Lou Wilson
is giving a talk at the local bookshop tonight.
Her husband Pete is a
very nice man.
A comma
is used when writing a number that is made up of four or more figures, as in:
£45,000
12,000 kilometres
1,000.
However, this is not the case with a date, as in:
1066
1984.
Insert commas where this is
appropriate in the following passages.
1
Mary’s son Mark is a brilliant linguist and works as an interpreter. He
speaks fluent French German Spanish and Russian and has a good knowledge of
Danish Norwegian and Swedish. His wife Maria who is Spanish used to teach at
the local senior school before the birth of the first of their four children.
John Brown the head teacher there says that she was an excellent teacher and he
would like her to go back to work.
Maria loves teaching and of course would like to
get her old job back. Sadly the cost of childcare in the area is extremely
expensive. In addition Mark has to travel a lot in connection with his work and
cannot help much with looking after the children. Mark caring as ever would
like to help more and spend more time with the children but this is simply not
possible.
Maria’s mother who lives with them is too frail
to take care of four active children and so Maria will have to postpone going
back to work for a while. She sometimes talks about taking on some private
pupils who are in need of special tutoring to help them pass their exams. This
on the whole sounds like a very good idea.
2
‘Please sit down here Mr Smith. Dr Black will see you next. Mrs Wilson
Dr Jones will see you now. Can you manage all right? It’s so difficult to walk
on crutches until you get used to them isn’t it? Still your leg seems to be
healing nicely doesn’t it? Ms Black Dr Martin is off ill. I’ve given you an
appointment with Dr Blair who’s acting as a locum while Dr Martin is off. I
hope your cold is a bit better. This cold weather’s doesn’t help does it? Look
it’s started snowing. Take care Mrs Wilson! The pavements may be quite slippery
and you certainly don’t want to fall again do you?’
3
We’ve just started a literary society in the village and we’ve already
got quite a few members. My aunt who has just moved here is the president of
the society and I am the secretary. It involves more work than I thought it
would but nevertheless I am enjoying it.
Sometimes we invite a speaker to address the
society sometimes one of the society members gives a talk and sometimes we just
have an informal discussion. There are several people among the members who
have worked in publishing and we also have some members who are professional
writers. For example Bill Jackson the society’s treasurer is quite a well-known
travel writer and his wife Jean Jackson who writes under the pseudonym Jenny
Adams is making quite a name for herself as a crime writer.
Alas we have been unable to persuade Mark Hill
writer of several very successful novels about espionage to join the society.
He says that he is too busy with his writing and in addition he travels a lot.
Still we have quite enough members to have a successful society.
1
Mary’s son Mark is a brilliant linguist and works as an interpreter. He
speaks fluent French, German, Spanish and Russian and has a good knowledge of
Danish, Norwegian and Swedish. His wife Maria, who is Spanish, used to teach at
the local senior school before the birth of the first of their four children.
John Brown, the head teacher there, says that she was an excellent teacher and
he would like her to go back to work.
Maria loves teaching and, of course, would like
to get her old job back. Sadly, the cost of childcare in the area is extremely
expensive. In addition, Mark has to travel a lot in connection with his work
and cannot help much with looking after the children. Mark, caring as ever,
would like to help more and spend more time with the children, but this is
simply not possible.
Maria’s mother, who lives with them, is too
frail to take care of four active children and so Maria will have to postpone going
back to work for a while. She sometimes talks about taking on some private
pupils who are in need of special tutoring to help them pass their exams. This,
on the whole, sounds like a very
2
‘Please sit down here, Mr Smith. Dr Black will see you next. Mrs Wilson,
Dr Jones will see you now. Can you manage all right? It’s so difficult to walk
on crutches until you get used to them, isn’t it? Still, your leg seems to be
healing nicely, doesn’t it? Ms Black, Dr Martin is off ill. I’ve given you an
appointment with Dr Blair who’s acting as a locum while Dr Martin is off. I
hope your cold is a bit better. This cold weather’s doesn’t help, does it?
Look, it’s started snowing. Take care, Mrs Wilson! The pavements may be quite slippery
and you certainly don’t want to fall again, do you?’
3
We’ve just started a literary society in the village and we’ve already
got quite a few members. My aunt, who has just moved here, is the president of
the society and I am the secretary. It involves more work than I thought it
would, but, nevertheless, I am enjoying it.
Sometimes we invite a speaker to address the
society, sometimes one of the society members gives a talk and sometimes we
just have an informal discussion. There are several people among the members
who have worked in publishing and we also have some members who are
professional writers. For example, Bill Jackson, the society’s treasurer, is
quite a well-known travel writer and his wife Jean Jackson, who writes under
the pseudonym Jenny Adams, is making quite a name for herself as a crime writer.
Alas, we have been unable to persuade Mark Hill,
writer of several very successful novels about espionage, to join the society.
He says that he is too busy with his writing and, in addition, he travels a
lot. Still, we have quite enough members to have a successful society.
