Forms of the Verb: Active Voice and Passive Voice
The English verb has forms called voices, moods, tenses, aspects, numbers, and persons, which represent the action sug gested by the verb as limited in various ways, such as in person, number, time, manner of conception, etc. A verb that can be limited in all these ways is called a finite verb: I go, he goes, they go, he went, he may go, he might go, etc. The infinite forms of the verb the participle, the infinitive, and the gerund are limited in fewer ways.One of the marked features of the growth of English in the modern period is the amazing activity in the field of the verb. Not only entirely new structures have been reared but also new life has been injected into older creations that were living before only feebly.
Voice
There are two voices, the active and the passive.The Six Forms and Their Uses of Active voice
The active voice indicates that the subject does something, is, or is becoming, something. There are six forms, which fall into two groups. The forms of the first group the common form, the expanded form, the do-form are finite; the forms of the second group the participle, the infinitive, the gerund are infinite. The forms of the first group must agree with the subject in person and number: 'Our bird sings very little.' 'Birds sing.' "The boat is sinking. The boats are sinking.' 'I am sinking.' 'Does he do his work well?' 'Do they do their work well?' Finite verbs in present-day English are not so rich in endings as in the older periods, but they must agree with the subject whenever they can. The forms of the second group do not have inflectional endings, hence they can never indicate their agreement with the subject: 'Going (= As I was going) down the street I met a friend.' 'Going ( As we were going) down the street we met some friends.' 'I believe him to be (= that he is) honest.' 'I believe them to be (= that they are) honest.' 'After finishing (= After he finishes) his work he goes to bed. After finishing (= After they finish) their work they go to bed.' The infinite forms have fewer tenses than finite verbs, but they express the time relations fairly well. Participle and gerund lack forms for mood and aspect. They cannot express mood at all and can express progressive action only in the perfect tense.The infinitive lacks forms for mood but has forms for the two aspects: 'I expect him to work tomorrow.' 'I expect the engine to be working by this time tomorrow.' 'He is reported to have done it.' 'He is reported to have been playing there at that time.' Compare the full inflection of verbs. The finite forms can express finer shades of thought than the infinite forms as they are richer in means of expression, hence they must often be used; but the infinite forms are great favorites in practical life by reason of their handiness and are highly prized in choice language by reason of their elegant simplicity. The improvements that in the last five centuries have been gradually introduced into the infinite forms by making them clearer means of expression and by making it possible to use them more extensively show that the English people has appreciated their good qualities and intends to give them a wider place in its everyday speech. The infinite forms, however, are restricted to subordinate clauses. Here they compete with finite verbs, as shown in some of the examples given above. They do not differ from the finite forms in meaning. They are usually only convenient substitutes for them. On account of the great usefulness of the infinite forms they are treated with considerable care in this book..
A description of the six forms follows.
1. Common Form:
'Mary makes good bread.' 'Mr. Smith is a banker.' 'I have just received good news.'The common form has two distinct uses.
(1) It expresses a general truth, a fact, a habitual act: 'Water runs down hill.' 'Honesty pays.' 'He smokes.'
(2) It expresses a particular act: 'I hear him coming up the stairs.' 'I see him coming up the street.' Although the common form often expresses something general, as in (1), it often expresses something particular, as here. It always expresses an accomplished fact, but the fact is sometimes of a general nature, sometimes refers to a particular occurrence.
The idea of a single particular occurrence is indicated not by some peculiarity of form but by the situation, as in these two examples. But sometimes the situation does not show that the act is a particular one. To make it perfectly clear that the act is a particular one, not general, we employ the expanded form.
The common form has two quite different meanings. They are united, however, in a higher unity. Both meanings represent the act as a whole, as an accomplished fact. Thus the common form always has terminate force.
a. PRO-VERB 'Do.'
To avoid the repetition of the common form of a verb that has just been mentioned we employ the pro-verb do in its stead: 'He behaves better than you do,' instead of behave. 'We shall have a hard time of it if competition advances as it hás done for several years.' 'He has never acted as he should have done.'In colloquial speech has or have is often used elliptically for has done or have done: 'It is very unkind of you to inconvenience us as you have.'
2. Expanded Form.
It is made up of a form of the copula be and the present participle of the verb to be conjugated: 'He is writing a letter.'The expanded form from its frequent use with progressive force, as described in a below, is often called the progressive form.' It has, however, sometimes still the meaning of the common form, as described in b below. In the Old English period, when it firs under the fluence of church Latin, came into use, it was not differentiated in meaning from the common form. The present differentiation of the two forms is the result of hundreds of years of development. In Shakespeare's day the expanded form was used as today but not so often and so regularly: 'What do you read (now are you reading), my lord?' (Hamlet, II, II).
The expanded form, though now widely used, is not employed at all with the copula be if it is desired to impart progressive force. Thus we still say, as in older English, 'I am sick,' 'I have been here a month,' not 'I am being sick,' 'I have been being here a month.' The expanded form of the copula be always has terminate force.
The expanded form as used today has two quite different meanings.
a. WITH PROGRESSIVE FORCE.
The expanded form usually represents an act as going on: 'He is working in the garden.' There is thus usually an idea of progression or continuance associated with this form. Hence with such a verb as know we cannot use it at all, for know denotes a fact, something complete within itself, not something uncompleted that is still going on: 'I have known (not have been knowing) him for ten years.' Similarly we say, 'I hear (not am hearing, for the act of perception is completed) him coming up the stairs.' On the other hand, the expanded form cannot be employed with verbs denoting a condition, state, even though the idea of continuance is prominent, for it is gener ally restricted in its use to verbs denoting action: 'I have been (not have been being) sick all week.' We use the common form here. Such verbs as sit, lie, stand, remain, however, are thought of as acts, not conditions, for we can prolong the acts at will: 'He has been sitting on the porch for an hour. Of course, there are acts beyond the power of our will, such as rain, snow, thunder, perspire, etc. It is here self-evident that these are acts of nature. With all verbs denoting acts the particular phase of the progression is indi cated by the meaning of the verb or verbal phrase. With duratives the expanded form represents the subject as in the midst of the action: 'He is working in the garden.' With iteratives this form represents the subject as in the midst of action that is often repeated: The clock is ticking.' 'The girls are giggling. With ingressives it represents progression towards the beginning of an act or state, i.e. a preparing to, a tending to, the initial stage to: 'It is going to rain.' 'Look out! I am going to shoot.' 'I am getting tired.' 'The baby was waking up as I entered.' With effectives the expanded form indi cates that the action is progressing toward, is approaching an end: 'The lake is drying up.' 'His strength is giving out.'The progressive idea was once expressed by the common form, which, however, was used also with its present meaning. The introduction of the expanded form to express progressive force was a great improvement of English expression.
b. WITH TERMINATE FORCE.
The expanded form often represents the act as a whole, hence it has terminate force: 'I am sorry you doubt my statement. I am telling you the truth.' The common form, 'I tell the truth,' could not be used here, for its meaning, as in (1) in 1 (2nd par.) above, is so general that it is not felt as suitable for reference to this particular case. The action. here is not represented as going on. The reference is to an act as a whole. We must thus often employ the expanded form to indi cate that the statement is not general but refers to a particular case. It must not be inferred, however, that the common form cannot be used for reference to a particular case. It often indicates a particular act above. Usually in such cases the situation makes it clear that the reference is to a particular act: 'I hear him coming up the stairs.' 'I demand that you go at once.' But when the situation does not make it perfectly clear that the reference is to a particular act we employ the expanded form: 'I know that I am demanding a good deal of you when I ask this of you, but I hope that you will do it.' Thus though the expanded form is often not employed to indicate a particular act it always stands ready for service when the common form is not a clear means of expression. We have been so often told that we should associate the expanded form with progressive force that we have overlooked the fact that it often has terminate force, i.e. indicates an act or state as a whole, as a fact. The expanded form of the copula be is always terminate: 'Perhaps I am being a fool, dearest one. I will go up to my music-room and play myself into reason and leave you to your own work' (Charles Morgan, The Fountain, p. 289). The expanded form refers to the particular moment in question.The expanded form with terminate force is often associated with our inner convictions and feelings so that statements having this form contain a strong personal element expressing emphasis or feeling: 'When Elizabeth put Ballard and Babington to death she was not persecuting' (Macaulay, Essays). 'Somebody has been tampering with my alarm clock!' The references here are to particular cases, but the expanded form with terminate force often refers also to a general fact imparting likewise emphasis and feeling: 'A rich man who spends his money thoughtfully is serving ( much more emphatic than serves) his country as nobly as anybody' (Milne, Mr. Pym Passes By, p. 10). 'You are helping me, darling. You are being an angel' (Noel Coward, The Vortex). 'John is doing fine work at school' (spoken in tone of praise). 'John has been neglecting his work recently!' (vexation). 'You children are always getting in my way when I am at work' (scolding). 'Our vacation is almost over. We shall soon be having to go down to the old shop every morning' (unpleasant thought). The lively tone associated with the terminate expanded form makes this form peculiarly suitable for use in descriptive style: 'We are tramping over the hills and reading and writing and having a restful time' (Jean Webster, Daddy-Long-Legs, p. 225).
The terminate force of the expanded form is very old. It was in use in the Old English period. It is probably the oldest meaning of the form. Throughout the centuries progressive force has been becoming more and more associated with this form, but the old terminate force is still often found with it, as seen in the above examples.
3. 'Do'-Form.
In the present and the past tense of verbs of complete predication the simple verb is often replaced by a periphrastic form made up of do and a dependent infinit "Thus conscience does make (= makes) cowards of us all' (Shakespeare), originally causes a making of cowards out of us all. At first, do was a full verb with an infinitive as object. Later, it lost its con crete force and became a mere periphrastic auxiliary. In older English, as in the example from Shakespeare, there was usually no clear difference of meaning between the simple and the periphrastic form. This periphrastic form with do was rare in Old English, but it began to become common in the fourteenth century and was at its height between 1500 and 1700. After the periphrastic and the simple form had long been used interchangeably, a desire for more accurate expression led to a differentiation of their meaning, as described in detail below. Present usage became fixed about 1750, but with certain verbs the old simple forms lingered on even in plain prose long after they had elsewhere passed away, indeed here and there linger still, especially in set expressions, as if I mis take not, I care not, I doubt not, I know not, what say you? what think you? etc. Of course, the poet makes still more liberal use of the old forms when it suits his purpose. In popular speech there is a tendency to employ the do-form with the copula be in declarative sentences, which is contrary to literary usage: 'Some days she do be awful about her food' (Dorothy Gerard, The Eternal Woman, Ch. XV).In plain prose we now employ do in the following categories:
(1) In the present and the past tense of a verb of complete predication accented do stands in a question, a declarative statement, or an entreaty where there is a desire to emphasize the idea of actuality, the truthfulness of a claim, realization or a desire of realization: 'Didn't he work?' 'Did he work? Does he cheat?' 'I still maintain that you didn't dó it.''But I did do it.' 'Why don't you work?''I dó work.' 'I am so happy to learn that you dó intend to come.' ""My dear, you did (painful realization) tread on my toe." "I didn't méan to," muttered Soames' (Galsworthy, Swan Song, Part II, Ch. II). Dó finish your work' (desire of realization).
(2) Unaccented do is used in the present and the past tense in declarative sentences with inverted word-order and in entreaties and questions in which there is no desire present to emphasize the idea of actuality: 'Never did I sée such a sight.' 'Bitterly did we repént our decision.' Do finish your work.' 'Does he be Keve it?' 'How's (= how does) it strike you?' (Jack London, The Sea-Wolf, Ch. VII). 'What's he say?' 'What did he answer?'
The old simple forms are now used in questions only when the subject is an interrogative pronoun: 'Who met you?' In older English, the simple forms could be used also when some other word was subject: Discern'st thou aught in that?" (Shakespeare, Othello, III, III, 101). The old simple forms are still used for archaic effect in historical novels: 'Saw you ever the like?' (Wallace, Ben Hur, Ch. X). Also in certain dialects, as in Scotch English, the old simple forms are still used: 'What paid ye for't?' (George Macdonald, Robert Falconer, Ch. XXI). The older simple form survives widely in the literary language in the case of have, especially in England: Have you swordfish?' alongside of the more common do-form, 'Do you have swordfish?' The old simple form is still often, especially in England, employed with used: 'Used you, or did you use, to do such things?' In indirect questions the old simple form is preserved with all verbs: 'When did you come back?' but 'I asked him when he came back.'
(3) Do is employed also in the negative form of questions, declarative statements, and commands when simple not is the negative, but only in the present and past tense of verbs of com plete predication. It is therefore not employed in the case of the copula be, the tense auxiliaries, the modal auxiliaries can, must, etc., the auxiliary-like verb ought, often also the auxiliary-like verbs need, dare, used, which, however, may take do; usually also not in the case of have in unemphatic statements: 'Doesn't he live here?' but Isn't he here?" 'I do not often forgét it,' but 'I must not forget it.' 'I do not go home till eight,' but either 'I need not go home till eight' or 'I do not need to go home till eight.' 'She dared not tell (or to tell) him,' or 'She did not dare tell (or to tell) him.' 'He did not use, or used not, to smoke,' or colloquially 'He didn't use, or usedn't (usen't), to smoke,' where Americans prefer the do-forms, Britishers the simple form. In America and England both con structions are often blended in colloquial and popular speech: 'I didn't used to mind your embarrassing me' (Sinclair Lewis, Dods worth, last Ch.). 'I didn't used' (Gepp, Essex Dialect, p. 120). Usage fluctuates with have, often even in the same sentence: 'I haven't or don't have, it with me,' but in emphatic statement 'I do not have it with me,' where, however, in colloquial speech we may employ also the form without do: 'You have it with you."
'I haven't.' In commands and entreaties: Don't touch me!' 'Don't you touch me!' 'Don't have a thing to do with him!' 'Don't go yet!' In negative commands and in positive and negative en treaties do is used also with the copula be, as do has become asso ciated with negative commands and both positive and negative entreaties: Don't be láte!' Dón't you be late!' Dó be reason able!' Dón't be unreasonable!' In popular speech do is used also elsewhere with be: 'Now boy, why don't you be perlite and get up and give one of these young ladies a seat?' (Punch).
Although in negative statements the old simple forms have dis appeared from simple prose, the charm of the beautiful older sim plicity often asserts itself in the language of our better moments: 'We cannot do wrong to others with impunity. Our conscience résts not until the wrong be righted.'
(4) In our popular southern American English the do-form is used also in the present perfect tense, as in older Scotch English: 'I [have] done tell you 'bout Brer Rabbit makin' 'im a steeple' (Joel Chandler Harris, Nights with Uncle Remus, p. 97).
The dependent infinitive following the past participle done is often attracted into the form of the past participle: 'I 'speck I [have] done tole (instead of tell) you 'bout dat.'
4. Participial Form.
a. The participle often has full verbal force and at the same time performs the function and has the position of an adjective. It is used in subordinate clauses as predicate or as predicate appositive. Predicate in adjective relative clauses: 'The boy playing (= who is playing) in the yard is my brother.' 'His last novel, written (= which was written) in 1925, is his best.' 'He is a man broken (= who has been broken) by misfortune.' It is very common as objective predicate: 'I see him work ing in his garden.' It has here progressive force. To express terminate force, i.e. the idea of an action as a whole, as a fact, we must employ the infinitive as objective predicate: 'He said he didn't do it, but I saw him do it.' In adverbial clauses the participle often stands as a predicate appositive alongside of the predicate or near it, modifying it as to some relation of time, manner, attendant circumstance, cause, condition, concession, purpose. Time: 'Going (= As I was going) down town I met an old friend.' Having finished (= After I had finished) my work I went to bed.' Manner (an unusually common category in Eng lish): 'I beat him jumping' (indicating manner, respect in which he excelled). 'He was (was busy) two years writing the book.' 'Are you through asking questions?' Attendant circumstance: 'He was drowned bathing in the river.' Cause: 'I feel it as a rare occasion occurring (= since it occurs) as it does only once in many years.' 'Feeling (= Since I feel) tired I'll stay at home.' 'I was proud of him acting (= since he acted) so unselfishly.' Condition: 'The same thing, happening ( if it should happen) in wartime, would amount to disaster.' Concession: 'Even assuming (= Though we assume) a great willingness on the part of our members to work, we are not properly prepared for the task.' Purpose: 'He went fishing' (= that he might fish).The subject of the participle is usually not expressed within the participial clause. It is implied in some noun or pronoun near by to which the participle as a predicate or predicate appositive ad jective belongs. The subject of the participle is expressed only in the nominative absolute construction: 'Off we started, he remaining (= while he remained) behind.' The use of the different forms of the participle in the nominative absolute construction is illustrated. On the other hand, the participle often has no subject expressed or implied the dangling (or unrelated) participle. This construction is usually censured by grammarians, but on account of its easy formation it is in wide use and is even approved natural English expression wherever the reference is quite general and indefinite: 'Generally speaking (= If one may speak in a general sense), boys are a nuisance.' 'So how could I have stolen him from her, even supposing (= if one should suppose) I had the slightest desire to' (Sinclair Lewis, Dodsworth, Ch. XIX).
The participial form was little used in Old English with the full force of a verb. Later in Middle English, under the influence of church Latin, it came into wider use with this force. Little by little it has become a powerful construction, a general favorite by reason of its convenience and forcible terseness.
5. Infinitival Form.
b. The infinitive was originally a verbal noun. It was often used as the object of the preposition to, and this older usage survives in many expressions. Preposition and infinitive together form a prepositional object, which is used to complete the meaning of a verb, adjective, or participle: 'Hunger drove him to steal' or to stealing. 'I finally induced him to do it.' 'He is eager to do it.' 'He is inclined to take offense easily.'The to before the infinitive, however, is now usually a con junction rather than a preposition. It is now for the most part a mere formal introduction to the infinitive clause just as that is often a mere formal introduction to the full clause with a finite verb. The infinitive itself is the verbal predicate in the subordi nate clause in which it stands. It is now widely used in subordi nate clauses. Adjective relative clause: 'John the boy o do it' (who should do it). 'That thing for you to do' (that you should do). Attributive substantive clause: 'His desire to succeed (= that he should succeed) spurred him on.' 'It is time for you to begin your work' (= that you should begin your work). Subject clause: 'It is stupid of you to say it' (= that you say it). Object clause: 'I hope to see him today' (= that I may see him today). Adverbial clause: 'I am going early so as (or in order) to get a good seat' (clause of purpose so that I may get a good seat).
j. As shown in the examples just given the infinitive clause is an equivalent of the full clause with a finite verb. As it is usually felt as an easier way of talking, it is a favorite in colloquial speech; but by reason of its elegant simplicity it is much used also in more formal language. The expression here is often elliptical: 'I shall go to the celebration tomorrow, or at least I am planning to [go].'
a. SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE.
The subject of the infinitive is often not expressed in the clause, but is some noun or pronoun performing some function in the principal proposition and at the same time serving as the subject of the infinitive: 'He desires to go at once' ( He desires that he may go at once). Here he, the subject of the principal verb, serves also as the subject of the infinitive. The infinitive construction often has the force of a relative clause. The subject of the infinitive is the noun or pronoun that precedes it: 'This road car is the latest to be offered to the public' (which has been offered). 'He has an ax to grind' (= which he wants to grind). 'The king has no children to succeed him on the throne' (who can succeed him).In 'She gave him (dative) to understand that he should not come back again' him, the dative object of the principal verb, is also subject of the infinitive. Likewise in the two following examples: 'I told him (dative) where to find it' (= where he could find it). 'I taught him (dative) how to do it.' In the passive the infinitive is retained: 'He was told how to do it.'
In 'I am depending upon him to do it' him is the object of the preposition upon and serves at the same time as the subject of the infinitive.
The subject of the infinitive is most commonly an accusative, which serves as the object of the principal verb and as the subject of the infinitive: 'He begged me (accusative) to go at once.' After verbs of permitting, allowing, commanding, and ordering the dative object serves also as the subject of the infinitive: 'I permitted her to take the books out of the library.' 'I ordered him to bring in the prisoners.' When the infinitive is put into passive form its former accusative object becomes its new accusative subject: 'I permitted them (i.e. the books) to be taken out of the library.' 'I ordered them (i.e. the prisoners) to be brought in.'
The infinitive with an accusative subject has its simple form after let, bid, make, have (cause, experience), see, notice, look at, observe, perceive, watch, feel, hear, overhear, listen to: 'Bid him. come in.' 'I had him do it yesterday.' 'I had the gypsies steal my hens.' 'I saw him do it.' 'Look at him run!' 'I heard (or 'over heard') him say it.'
In the passive statement the infinitive is retained, but it takes to: 'He was heard to say it.' 'He was seen to do it.' The accusative is used as the subject of the infinitive after another, quite different group of verbs, namely, want, wish, desire, like, know, think, believe, suspect, suppose, take (= suppose), imagine, expect, declare, report, represent, reveal, find, prove, etc. The infinitive here arose in the objective predicate construction: 'She wishes him happy.' 'She wished him here.' 'I imagined him a respectable man." 'I can't imagine anyone in better health.' 'They represented me as having forsaken my former principles.' Here an adjective, adverb, noun, prepositional phrase, or a participle is predicated of the preceding object without the aid of the linking verb be, as is usual in this construction, but there is a natural modern tendency to employ the linking verb here as elsewhere: 'She wished him to be here." 'I know him as an honest man or him to be an honest man." 'I thought, supposed him to be the owner of the house.' 'He thought, supposed Richard be me'. I took him to be nearer sixty than fifty.' 'They report him to be very sick.' Likewise in the passive: 'She wished the rubbish removed or the rubbish to be removed. The old objective predicate construction without the linking verb be, as in the last example, is still common in the passive.
In the objective predicate construction the predicate is not only an adjective, adverb, noun, prepositional phrase, or participle, but now also an infinitive: 'She wishes him here with her' or him to stay with her. 'His father wants him to give more time to his studies.' 'She reports him as improving or him to be improving.'
When the subject of the infinitive is general or indefinite, it is often not expressed: 'It is wise to be cautious' (= that one should be cautious).
In Old English the subject of the infinitive was never in native expression formally expressed, but was merely implied in some word in the principal proposition, as in all the examples in the first six paragraphs. The construction was widely felt as very handy, but it could not be used where there was no word in the principal proposition which might serve as its subject. In the fourteenth century arose the desire to extend the use of the construction. The infinitive began to be used with a subject of its own if there was no word in the principal proposition that could serve as its subject. This subject is always preceded by the preposition for. The history and explanation of this for is given in Syntaa, 21 e. Though most people know nothing of the origin of this for everybody feels clearly that it must stand before the subject of the infinitive. This new construction occurs most commonly in the subject clause and in adverbial clauses, much less commonly in object clauses: 'For me to back out now (subject clause) would be to acknowledge that I am afraid.' 'All that I want is for somebody be thinking about me' (Arnold Bennett, The Glimpse) that somebody should be thinking about me (subject clause). 'He was too near for me to avoid him' (adverbial clause of result). 'I know how deeply she must have offended you for you to speak like that' (adverbial clause of cause). 'I should be glad for Mary to go' (adverbial clause of condition). 'I see no way out of the difficulty except for them to offer an apology' (adverbial clause of exception). There was nothing now but for him and the footman to get into the carriage' (adverbial clause of exception). 'I am waiting for them to go' (adverbial clause of purpose). 'I hope for the book to make its mark' (Meredith, Letters, p. 550) (object clause). It is common as object of an adjective: 'I am eager for her to see it.'
b. USE OF THE TENSES OF INFINITIVE AFTER FULL VERB.
The tenses of the infinitive express time relative to that of the principal verb. The present tense indicates time contemporaneous or future with reference to that of the principal verb: 'I wish to do it.' 'He was foolish to do it,' not usually now as in older English 'He was foolish to have done it.' 'I managed to do it without his help' (I did it without his help). Of course, the present infinitive refers to the past after the annalistic present, for the annalistic present itself refers to the past: 'This is the fourth case of lockjaw to occur (i.e. that has occurred) within a week.'
The perfect tense of the infinitive indicates time prior to that of the principal verb: 'I am proud to have been able to help.' 'It gives recreation a better relish to have first accomplished some thing. To indicate non-realization many still say 'I intended to have written a line to you,' a survival of older usage. As the perfect infinitive, according to present usage, points to time prior to that of the principal verb, it does not now express here the idea in tended. Hence it is now more common in the literary language to say: 'I had intended to write a line to you.' 'He would have liked to have hugged his father' (Hughes, Tom Brown's School-Days, I, Ch. IV) is now usually replaced by 'He would have liked to hug his father.'
The use of the tenses of the infinitive after modal auxiliaries is treated in 50 2 d (next to last par.).
6. Gerundial Form.
The present participle now has the same form as the gerund. Although the gerund is not differentiated from the present participle in form, it is distinguished by its function. While the participle has the function and the position of an ad jective, the gerund has the function and the position of a noun: 'Rearing a large family is no easy task.' Here rearing has the full force of a verb, but at the same time it has the function of a noun, for it is the subject of the sentence. A sentence with a subject clause often begins with anticipatory it and closes with a gerundial clause as logical subject: It is no use (predicate) your saying anything about it.'In 'I like working out my own problems' working has the full force of a verb, but at the same time it has the function of a noun, for it is the object of the principal verb. Thus the gerund is widely used in subject and object clauses.
One of the most common functions of the gerund is to serve as the object of a preposition. Preposition and gerund together form a prepositional clause, which modifies a verb, adjective, participle, or noun. Such a prepositional clause is of course an adjective element if it modifies a noun: 'his disappointment over attaining so little. If the prepositional clause modifies a verb, adjective, or participle it is an object if its relation to the governing word is very close, but it is an adverbial element if its relation to its governing word is less close. Prepositional clause as object: ' Hunger drove him to stealing' or to steal. 'He insisted upon his wife's joining him in the deceit.' 'I am afraid of their seeing it.' 'I am accustomed to doing (or to do) it this way.' Adverbial prepositional clause: After finishing my work (clause of time) I went to bed.' 'He differed from his colleagues in spending his spare time in reading' (clause of manner). 'He never passed people without greeting them' or without their greeting him (clauses of attendant circum stance). I have gone as far as collecting statistics for my investi gation' (clause of extent). 'I can't do anything for thinking of her' (clause of cause). 'He can't walk yet without my helping him' (clause of condition). 'I didn't come with the object of destroying the good feeling prevailing among you' (clause of purpose).
The gerund, as a noun, often follows a noun in the capacity of a modifying genitive: 'In the language of scholars the art of speak ing simply is almost a lost art.' The gerund, as a noun, can stand in apposition to a preceding noun: 'I now have very pleasant work, preparing boys for college.' As a noun the gerund often forms the first component of a compound: báking-powder, ironing-bòard, dining-càr, drinking water, sleeping-quarters. A present participle in the same position is distinguished from the gerund by its adjective force and its weaker stress: sleeping children.
a. SUBJECT OF GERUND.
In Old English the subject of the gerund was always in the genitive, the subjective genitive, for the subject of a verbal noun was regularly in the genitive. In general this rule still holds for verbal nouns: 'man's love of fairness.' We often still employ as the subject of the gerund a genitive or a possessive adjective, which historically is an old genitive: 'I am provoked at John's (or his, her, your, their) treating him so rudely.' In contrast to usage with other verbal nouns the genitive subject of our modern gerund with the force of a full verb is always an s-genitive, never an of-genitive. For centuries the English people has been growing ever fonder of the handy, forcible gerund. As soon as it became a favorite means of expression widely used, there arose a serious formal difficulty, which had to be overcome. To the ear the singular and the plural of the s-genitive sound alike. The natural impulse to speak so as to be understood led to an improvement of English expression here. A simple means of removing the difficulty suggested itself. It soon became common to employ an accusative as subject instead of the genitive, for the accusative always distinguishes singular and plural by the form: 'I don't approve of my son (sing.), or my sons (pl.), doing that.' There is a natural inclination to avoid the s-genitive of a noun denoting a lifeless thing. Rather than use the queer obsolete s-genitive here most people prefer to employ an accusative subject: 'You better not depend on this address reaching me but address c/o Guaranty' (Sinclair Lewis, Dodsworth, Ch. XIX). There are a large number of uninflected pronouns that have no s-genitive. Of course we have here no choice. We must employ an accusative: 'Some families may have moved away on account of the repeated failure of crops, but I do not know of any having done so. If there is after the subject of the gerund a modifier of any kind the accusa tive is now always used as subject: 'Did you ever hear of a man (never man's) of good sense refusing such an offer?' Enough has been said to explain the wide use of the accusative today as subject of the gerund.In one group of pronouns, however, the genitive is still preferred the old genitives my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their: "The fact of his (or her, their) being convicted so promptly is grati fying. On the other hand, the gerund often has no subject of its own, as there is elsewhere in the sentence a noun or pronoun which is felt not only as performing its own function but as serving also as the subject of the gerund: 'I am afraid of hurting his feel ings.'
b. ORIGIN OF GERUND.
The gerund was originally a verbal noun. Its object was in the genitive, like that of any other verbal noun, as in the persecution of the early Christians.' This old construction is still common: The shooting of birds (genitive ob ject) is forbidden.' 'I don't like his trusting of the secret to his friends. The gerund, like every other verbal noun, can take an article or a possessive adjective before it, as in these examples. The article or possessive adjective, however, disappears when the verbal force of the gerund becomes strong, and the genitive object is replaced by an accusative object, as required by verbs: 'Shoot ing birds is useless.' This is the verbal construction that has been treated above. This verbal force has become so strong that, since 1500, forms for tense and voice have been gradually coming into ever wider use: 'After having finished my work I went to bed.' 'The fact of his being (or having been) convicted so promptly is gratifying.' Though the gerund now often has the full force of a verb and can, like a verb, take an accusative object, it does not, like a verb, take a nominative subject. Just as every verbal noun has a genitive subject, as in 'a man's love of fairness,' so may the gerund often still take a genitive subject, as in the early period when it was a mere verbal noun. Examples are given in a. More over, the gerund always has its original construction, i.e. it is still always a noun the subject or object of a verb or the object of a preposition..........................................
Passive Voice
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