CLAUSES, PHRASES AND PHRASAL VERBS
A clause (see 1, 2), like a major sentence, is a meaningful group
of words containing a subject (see 2) and predicate (see 2). However, unlike sentences, not all clauses can
stand alone and make sense.
A clause that can stand alone
and make sense is known as a main clause. Every major sentence must have at least one main clause (see 2). (See Types of sentence). In each of the
following sentences the underlined words form a main clause: He
was at the office when I arrived.
I knew why he left.
We took the train because the car broke down.
Some sentences consist of
more than one main clause connected
by a coordinating
conjunction (see 1) such as and, but or or. Such sentences are known as compound sentences.
The following
sentences consist of two main clauses (see 1): I was very angry and he knew
it.
You can either apologize or
you can leave immediately.
It was a sunny day but it was
very cold.
The following sentences
consist of more than two main clauses:
She was intelligent and she was very efficient
but she had no luck in finding a job.
We can get a flight today or we can get one next week, but we cannot get
one at the weekend.
A comma
may be used to separate main clauses
joined by a coordinating conjunction (see 2), but this is not usual, especially if the clauses
have the same
subject and the coordinating
conjunction is and. When the
coordinating conjunction is but, the
use of a comma to mark off the main clause is more a matter of choice,
especially when both clauses are quite long.
A clause that cannot stand
alone and make sense and is dependent on the main clause to make sense is
called a subordinate
clause (see 1, 2, 4). A subordinate clause can
come before or after a main clause. In each of the following sentences the
underlined words form a subordinate clause.
He arrived after we had
started the meal.
We won’t be able to put in an
offer for the house until we sell our own.
He failed the exam although
he worked hard.
If you buy that car you will regret it.
When he saw her he smiled.
I wonder why she left.
There are several types of subordinate clause. With the exception
of a verb, a subordinate clause can replace most elements of a sentence
(adverb, adjective and noun).
A subordinate adverbial clause performs a similar
function to an adverb in a sentence.
For example in the sentence
She left for the airport
early.
the word early
is an adverb.
This adverb can be replaced by an adverbial clause,as in:
She left for the airport when
it became light.
She left for the airport before
the city traffic got too heavy.
In both these sentences the underlined words form an adverbial clause.
In some cases an adverbial clause
can come before the main clause, as in:
Before he left he gave her a
letter.
If the adverbial clause comes before the main clause it is sometimes
separated from the main clause by a comma, especially when the adverbial clause
is quite a long one. When the adverbial clause follows the main clause there is
usually no comma. See Commas and subordinate clauses (see 3).
There are various types of adverb and, correspondingly,
there are various types of adverbial clause.
This indicates the time
something happens and is introduced by a conjunction relating to time such as after, before, when, whenever, while, until, as soon as.
The words
underlined in each of the following sentences form an adverbial clause of time: We
need to leave before the traffic gets bad.
He got there as I was leaving.
It had snowed heavily while
we slept.
Whenever they meet they quarrel.
While we slept someone broke into the house.
This indicates the place that something happens
and is introduced by a conjunction (see 1) relating to place such as where, wherever, everywhere.
The words underlined in each
of the following sentences form an adverbial
clause of place: We left the books where
we had found them.
Wherever we went we saw signs of terrible poverty.
Everywhere she goes she upsets people.
NB:
Conjunctions and relative clauses
If
the conjunctions where or when follow a noun the subordinate
clause so formed is not an adverbial clause of place, but a relative clause (see Relative clause). For where you can substitute in
which and for when you can substitute at which. In each of the following
sentences the underlined words form a relative
clause not an adverbial
clause.
This is
the place where we last saw him.
This is
the time when the pain gets worse.
This indicates the intention
someone has when doing something and is introduced by a conjunction (see 2) relating
to purpose such as in order (to), to,
so as to, so that.
The words
underlined in each of the following sentences form an adverbial clause of purpose: We
started on our journey very early so that we could avoid the
city rush hour.
In order to pass the exam you are
going to have to work a lot harder.
He reduced the number of
staff in order that he might avoid bankruptcy.
We are saving hard so that
we can buy a new house.
This indicates why something
happens or is done and is introduced by a conjunction (see 3) relating to reason such as because, since,
as, in case. The words underlined in the following sentences form adverbial clauses of reason: I couldn’t
go to the wedding because I had to work that day.
As it was raining we had
the party indoors instead of in the garden.
Since your child broke the
window you should pay for the
repair.
I’m taking some sandwiches in
case there is no buffet on the train.
This indicates the result of
an event or situation and is introduced by a conjunction (see 4) relating to result, so that. The words so and that can be separated, so coming before an adjective or adverb
in the main clause and that being the
first word in the subordinate clause. The words underlined in each of the
following sentences form an adverbial
clause of result: She spoke very quickly so that we could scarcely
understand her instructions.
He fell
awkwardly so that he broke his leg.
She was so ill that
she had to be taken to hospital immediately.
We were so bored that
we left the lecture early.
An adverbial clause of result always comes after the main clause,
unlike some other adverbial clauses which can also come before it.
This indicates a possible
situation and its consequences and is introduced by a conjunction (see 5) relating to condition such as unless,
if, as if, provided (that), providing,
as long as.
The words underlined in each
of the following sentences form an adverbial
clause of condition: I’ll
come to the party provided I don’t have to work. If
you finish your project you can leave early.
I could have told you that if
you had bothered to ask me.
We will miss the plane unless
we leave for the airport now.
As long as you work late this
evening you can have tomorrow morning off.
If you study hard and do well
in your exams, you will easily get into university.
This indicates the way
someone behaves or the way in which something is done, and is introduced by a conjunction (see 6) relating
to manner such as as though, as if, as, like.
The words underlined in each
of the following sentences form an adverbial
clause of manner.
He talks as if he knows a
lot about the subject.
She looked at him as
though she hated him.
Why does he behave as he
does?
An adverbial clause of manner always follows the main clause, unlike
some other adverbial clauses which can also come before it.
This contains a fact that
contrasts in some way with the main clause or makes it seem surprising and is
introduced by a conjunction (see 7) such
as although,
though, even though, whereas, while, whilst. The words underlined in
each of the following sentences form
an adverbial clause of concession: I admire his work although I don’t really like him.
Even though she loves him she doesn’t trust him.
Whilst he works very hard, he doesn’t really achieve anything.
My friend loves to lie on the beach all day, whereas I like to
explore the surrounding villages.
Although he had all the right qualifications and experience for that
particular post, he was not appointed.
A comparative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies
comparative adjectives and adverbs and is introduced by than. The words underlined in each of the following sentences form
a comparative clause: The task was much more difficult than any of us had anticipated.
He worked harder than we
could ever have imagined.
She somehow looked less
attractive today than she did last night.
A relative clause (see 1, 2) performs a similar function
to an adjective in a sentence. It comes immediately after a noun in the main
clause, which is called the antecedent,
and gives more information about this noun. A relative clause is introduced by
a relative
pronoun (see 1), such as who, whose,
which and that, and this comes immediately after the antecedent. Who and whom are used when the noun refers to a person, which is used when it refers to a thing and that can be
used of either a person or thing. Whom
is used when the relative pronoun is the object of the verb in the relative
clause. Whose is used when you want
to refer to something relating to the person or thing you are talking about.
The words underlined in each of the sentences below form a relative clause.
That’s the boy who stole
the bike.
I know the man whose wife
was a surgeon.
These are the men whose
wages have been increased.
It is a country whose
population is in decline.
He is the neighbour whom
we like best.
Here is the book that I
borrowed.
I lost the
ring which he gave me.
He hit the driver that
damaged his car.
Sometimes the relative clause divides the parts of a main clause rather than coming after it. The words underlined in
each of the sentences below form a relative
clause: The house that we liked most was
much too expensive for us. The woman whose daughter is ill is
very upset.
The dream which I had last
night was very vivid.
NB: Relative pronoun
Sometimes there
is no relative pronoun at the beginning of the relative clause, as in the
underlined clauses below: He was the best
cook we ever had. She was not then the rich woman she later
became.
He wasn’t
the man she thought he was.
NB: Of which
In formal
English, especially written English, of
which is sometimes used instead of whose,
as in the underlined clauses below: It is
one of those cities of which the
centre has become a slum.
The ruined castle is one of those buildings of
which the history is inadequately documented.
There are two types of relative clause. A defining
relative clause identifies which person or thing you are talking about.
The words underlined in each of the following
sentences form a defining relative clause: I recognized the woman who
stole my purse. There is the man whom she adores.
He bought the necklace which
she had admired.
These are the chocolates that
Mum likes best.
A non-defining relative clause is not needed to identify the person
or thing that you are talking about, but it gives further information about
that person or thing.
The words
underlined in each of the following sentences form a non-defining relative clause: They
walked down the town’s main street which was called George
Street.
He fell in love with the girl
next door who became his wife.
He got his promotion which
was long overdue.
Punctuation in relative clauses
Where a non-defining relative clause divides the parts of a main clause it
is placed within commas.
His two sisters, who were
very close to him, never got over his death.
The old man, who is nearly 90, has become the oldest person to
complete a marathon.
Commas are not used in this way in the case of defining relative clauses.
The book that he took
was very valuable.
The car that we bought
proved to be unreliable.
Prepositions in relative clauses
When there is a preposition
in a relative clause this is often placed at the end of the clause, which is
often also the end of the sentence. Previously it was considered a grammatical
error to end a sentence with a preposition, but this attitude has changed.
However, the preposition can be put in front of the relative pronoun as
long as the sentence so formed sounds natural. This is most often done in
formal English, particularly written English.
This is what has happened to
the society which we live in.
This is what has happened to
the society in which we live.
Unbelievably, he has given up
the job which he trained so hard for.
Unbelievably, he has given up
the job for which he trained so hard.
This is the kind of behaviour
that I refuse to put up with.
You would NEVER say:
This is the kind of behaviour
up with which I refuse to put.
A noun or nominal clause
performs a similar function to a noun or noun phrase in a sentence. Like a noun
it can act as the subject (see 4), object or complement of the main clause.
The words underlined in each of the following
sentences are noun clauses that act as the subject
of the sentence: Where you go is of very little interest to me. What you know should be told to the
police.
What he does now is up to him.
The words underlined in each of
the following sentences are noun clauses that act as the object of the sentence: I’m
not asking why you’re going.
We didn’t know who had
done it.
He refused to say where he
was going.
The words underlined in each
of the following sentences are noun clauses that act as the complement of the sentence: The theory is that there will definitely be enough money for everyone.
My point is that we simply
can’t afford to move house.
NB: Nouns
and prepositions
Sometimes noun
clauses come after a preposition. The words underlined in each of the following
sentences are noun clauses: It depends on
how much money is available.
They all
commented on what a lot of weight he had lost.
A comment clause is a short clause inserted into a sentence,
sometimes used to show the speaker’s attitude to what he or she is saying and
sometimes used as a filler without much meaning. Comment clauses are
particularly common in informal speech.
The words
underlined in each of the following sentences form a comment clause.
To put it bluntly, he is a
liar.
He wasn’t sent to prison for
the crime, more’s the pity.
The patient will most likely
survive, I’m glad to say.
She’s only a few years older
than me, you know.
He’s been married twice
before, it seems.
NB: Use of
a comma
A comment
clause is often separated from the main clause by a comma.
A phrase usually refers to a group of words that work together to
form a grammatical unit, although, in fact, a phrase may consist of just one
word.
A clause or sentence can
usually be broken down into phrases. There are five kinds of phrase and each phrase takes its name from
the word class (see Main parts of
speech) which plays the main
part in its structure.
Thus, in a noun phrase a noun is the main part of
the structure of the phrase and in an adjective
phrase an adjective is the main part of the structure of the phrase.
A noun phrase, also called a nominal phrase, is a group of related words in which the main word
is a noun and which functions like a noun in a sentence or clause. Thus, a very long black car is a noun phrase
in which the main word is the noun car.
A noun phrase can either act
as the subject, object or complement of
the sentence or clause. The words underlined in each of the following sentences
are all noun phrases.
In the first two sentences the noun phrases act as the subject: The most dreadful
road accident has happened.
A terrible storm is forecast.
In the next two sentences the noun phrases act as the
object: We have some interesting new neighbours.
I met a very charming
woman at the party.
And in the last two sentences
the noun phrases act as the complement:
His father is a fairly talented artist.
My great-aunt later became a
famous opera singer.
An adjective phrase, also called an adjectival phrase, is a group of related words in which the main
word is an adjective and which functions like an adjective in a sentence or
clause. Thus, rather too old is an
adjectival phrases in which the main word is the adjective old. The words underlined in each of the following sentences are adjective phrases: She was tired, miserable
and hungry. The task was extremely
challenging.
The patient was getting paler
and weaker.
The flowers were fresh
from the garden.
On the day of the picnic the
weather was the worst possible.
An adverb phrase, also called an adverbial phrase or
an adverbial, is a group of related words
in which the main word is an adverb and which functions like an adverb in a
sentence or clause.
Thus,
extremely frequently
is an adverb phrase in which the main word is the adverb frequently.
The words underlined in each of the following sentences are adverb phrases: I
used to play tennis fairly
regularly.
I saw both of them very
recently.
I can’t stand this noise for
much longer.
She greeted her guests extremely
warmly.
The students are working really
hard.
They live very close.
A preposition phrase, also called a prepositional phrase, is a group of related words in which the main
word is a preposition and which functions like a preposition in a sentence or
clause.
Thus
on the table
is a preposition phrase in which the main word is the preposition on.
The words underlined in each of the following
sentences are preposition phrases: We waited at the bus stop.
He placed the book on the
table.
They walked into the room.
You must stay in the
garden.
A participial phrase (see 1) is a group of related words in which the main
word is a participle of a verb, either a present
participle, as in the following sentence: Walking along the beach, he thought deeply about his problems.
Or a past participle, as in
the sentence:
Disgusted by her
treatment, she resigned from her job.
The words underlined in the following sentences are participial phrases (see 2):
Bored by the party, she went
home early.
Living by himself, he was frequently lonely.
Relieved by the news, he smiled broadly.
Laughing happily, she went off to celebrate.
Built by his father, the house had been designed by him.
Weeping bitterly, the child held the broken toy.
Destroyed by war-time bombing, the city is now being rebuilt.
Badly injured, the
miners somehow managed to make their way to the surface.
Deeply touched by the gesture, the
young woman wrote a thank you-note.
A phrasal verb (see 1, 2) is a verb that consists of
two or three words. They can consist of a verb followed by an adverb or they can consist of a verb followed
by a preposition or they can consist
of a verb followed by an adverb and a preposition.
Examples of phrasal verbs are shown in the
sentences below with the phrasal verb underlined.
In this first group of
sentences the phrasal verbs all
consist of a verb followed by an adverb:
We sat down and waited.
She slipped on the ice and fell
over.
They set off just
before dawn.
When does the plane take
off?
It’s time to go in.
The price of property here
will go up.
Come up now, please.
How long did it take for the
patient to come round?
Winter will set in
soon.
The effects of the painkiller
began to wear off.
Our holiday plans have
fallen through.
Lie down and try to sleep.
The car had moved off.
He hopes to find a permanent
job and settle down.
The child curled up
and went to sleep.
The caller rang off
before I got to the phone.
In the next group of
sentences the phrasal verbs all
consist of a verb followed by a preposition:
They walked through
the forest.
We drove through the
city at midnight.
You should call on
your new neighbour.
The child fell into
the water.
My father
finally got over his illness.
The workers asked for
more money.
He originally came from
London.
She was living with
her parents at the time.
We had pored over all
the holiday brochures.
He is embarking on a
new career.
We banked on your
support.
She brought up her
children alone.
He turned down the job
offer.
In this last group of
sentences the phrasal verbs all
consist of a verb followed by an adverb
and a preposition.
Tiredness crept up on
her as she drove and she decided to stop for some coffee.
We’ll have to come up with
another source of funding.
It is time they did away
with these out-dated laws.
He must face up to the
possible consequences of his action.
I refuse to put up with
our noisy neighbours any longer.
You are bound to come up
against a few problems in the course of this task.
She looked up to her
father until she discovered that he was a crook.
The children get up to a lot of mischievous tricks when the
teacher leaves the room.
He ran off with his
best friend’s wife.
It all comes down to
money in the end.
Position of object in phrasal verbs
Many phrasal verbs act like
intransitive verbs (see intransitive). Some, however, act like transitive verbs and,
as such, take a direct object.
When a phrasal
verb is used in a transitive situation you sometimes have a choice as to where
to place the object. If it consists of a short noun phrase, the object can be
placed either after the second word of the phrasal verb, or after the first
word and before the second word. In the following sentences the underlined
words, in different positions, represent the object:
We filled up the water jug
with cold water from the kitchen tap.
We filled the water jug
up with cold water from the kitchen tap.
He’ll never live down this
terrible scandal.
The quarrel tore the
entire family apart.
When the object is a pronoun, such as him, her, it,
it usually comes before the second word of the phrasal verb.
In the following sentences the underlined words
form phrasal verbs and their pronoun objects:
I gave my letter of complaint
to the manager, but she immediately handed it over to her assistant.
When she broke off the
engagement he wanted her to keep the ring, but she gave it back.
It was Jim who thought of the
idea, but it was Jack who put it forward to the committee.
The little girl was badly
injured and police are trying to find the driver who knocked her over.
The young boxer was knocked
out and doctors took several minutes to bring him round.
NB:
Dangling participle
A dangling participle is a participle that has been misplaced in a sentence. A participle is often used to
introduce a phrase that is attached to a subject mentioned later in a sentence
as in:
Worn out
by the long walk, she fell to the ground in a faint.
Worn out is the participle and she the
subject.
It is a common error for such
a participle not to be related to any subject, as in:
Working
mainly at night, it seemed along time since she had seen daylight.
This participle is said to be ‘dangling’.
Another example of a dangling participle is contained in Living alone, the days seemed long.
where Living alone is not related to a particular subject.
It is also a common error for
a participle to be related to the wrong subject in a sentence, as in:
Painting the ceiling, some of the plaster fell on his head.
Painting is the participle and should go with a subject such as he. Instead it goes with some of the
plaster.
Participles in this situation
are more correctly known as misrelated
participles, although they are also
called dangling participles.
1 Underline the subordinate clauses in the following sentences.
No one knew who she was.
They left before the rush
hour got under way in earnest.
There is the youth who stole
my purse.
Doctors won’t know his
chances of recovery until they get the test results.
As the sun continued to shine
we decided to stay at the beach a little longer.
That is the book that I have
been looking for.
If you leave now you will be
there by nightfall.
The drains get blocked
whenever it rains heavily.
She acts as if she were
superior to the rest of us.
She didn’t tell him when she
would be back.
2 Write down which type of adverbial clause (i.e. time, place,
reason, etc) is underlined in the
following sentences.
Because the tickets were so
expensive I didn’t go to the concert.
He is moving to this area in order to be nearer his work.
The ring will be where you
left it.
He walked so quickly that
I had difficulty in keeping up with him.
As long as we get him to a
hospital right away he should be all right.
She’s going to buy the dress although
she can’t afford it.
The rent of the flat was much
more expensive than I had anticipated.
3 Underline the relative clauses in the following sentences.
She is one of those mothers
who overprotect their children.
That is the name of the man
whose car I bought.
He bought the cottage which
my aunt used to own.
This is the dress that she
likes best.
The village is the place
where we first met.
Jack was the friend whom my
father trusted most.
She was not the honest woman
that we all considered her to be.
That was the moment when she
fell in love.
It is one of those areas in
which the population has declined rapidly.
4 Which of the following relative clauses are defining and which are non-defining?
She bought the flowers which
were her mother’s favourites.
We went to the exhibition at
the city portrait gallery which is in Queen Street.
That is the teacher who
teaches my son maths.
His birth mother, whom he finally tracked down, did not want to know him. They had dinner at the town’s best fish
restaurant which is quite near where they live.
We eventually bought the
house which we had seen first.
The students who passed
the exam were all in the top section of the class.
This is the area where
most people want to live.
My former neighbour, who
moved away a few years ago, died last week.
5 Write out the sentences which contain a noun clause and underline that clause.
The police suspected that she
was the thief.
We knew who committed the
crime.
They are the people who
really care.
We realize that it is not
your fault.
Where he goes every night no
one knows.
This is the place where they
meet.
I’m not telling you when I
plan to leave.
That was the day when his
exam results were due.
His theory is that the
murderer is one of the victim’s relatives.
6 Underline the comment clauses in the following sentences.
To be frank about it, I
wouldn’t believe a word he says.
We have to move to the city,
I’m sorry to say.
The police arrested the wrong
man, it appears.
To be realistic, I think the
job will take at least six weeks.
7 Write down which of the
following underlined phrases are noun
phrases, which are adjectival phrases and which are adverbial phrases.
A terrible accident
occurred last night.
The
weather was wet, windy and bitterly cold.
They worked rapidly and
competently.
We saw some wonderful
scenery.
I once knew them very well
indeed.
She drove quickly and
carelessly.
The young woman was beautiful,
slender and well-dressed.
She married a handsome but
untrustworthy man.
8 Underline the participial phrases in the following sentences.
Smiling happily, she
congratulated the young couple on their engagement.
She ran along the road,
shouting loudly.
Completely exhausted by the
day’s work, she had a bath and went to bed early.
Savagely bombed by enemy
aircraft, the area was a wilderness for many years.
Greatly amused by the speech,
the crowd applauded enthusiastically.
Designed and made by her
mother, the dress attracted a great deal of admiration.
Walking slowly and painfully,
I eventually reached the doctor’s surgery.
9 Underline the phrasal verbs in the following sentences.
They stood up and applauded warmly.
I fell over the cat.
The dog lay down by the fire.
Our neighbours are moving
away.
He comes from London
originally.
She asked for more time to
pay.
Our guests set off after
dinner.
I can’t put up with this
noise any longer.
They brought up their children
in extreme poverty.
The plane will take off
shortly.
The effects of the sleeping
pills wore off slowly.
They left before
the rush hour got under way in earnest.
There is the youth who stole my purse.
Doctors
won’t know his chances of recovery until they get the test results.
As the sun
continued to shine we decided to stay at the beach a little longer.
That is
the book that I have been looking for.
If you leave now you will be there by
nightfall.
The drains get blocked whenever it rains heavily.
She acts as if she were superior to the rest of us.
She didn’t tell him when she would be back,
2 Because
the tickets were so expensive (reason)
in order
to be nearer his work (purpose)
where you left it (place)
that I had difficulty in keeping up with him (result)
As long as we get him to a
hospital right away
(condition)
although she can’t afford it (concession)
than I had anticipated (comparative)
3 She is one
of those mothers who overprotect their children.
That is
the name of the man whose car I bought.
He bought the cottage which my aunt used to own.
This is the dress that she likes best.
The village is the place where we first met.
Jack was the friend whom my father trusted most.
She was not the honest woman that we all considered her to be.
That was the moment when she fell in love.
It is one of those areas in which the population has declined rapidly.
4 which were her mother’s favourites (defining)
which is
in Queen Street (non-defining)
who teaches my son maths (defining)
whom he finally tracked down (non-defining)
which is quite near where they live (non-defining)
which we had seen first (defining)
who passed the exam (defining)
where most people want to live (defining)
who moved away a few years ago (non-defining)
5 The police
suspected that she was the thief.
We knew who
committed the crime.
We realize that it is not your fault.
Where he goes every night no one knows.
I’m not telling you when I plan to leave.
His theory is that they’ll come round eventually.
6 To be
frank about it, I wouldn’t believe a word he says.
We have to
move to the city, I’m sorry to say.
The police arrested the wrong man, it appears.
To be realistic, I think the job will take
at least six weeks.
7 A terrible
accident occurred last night. (noun phrase)
The
weather was wet, windy
and bitterly cold.
(adjectival phrase)
They worked rapidly and competently. (adverbial phrase)
We saw some wonderful scenery. (noun phrase)
I once knew them very well indeed. (adverbial phrase)
She drove quickly and carelessly. (adverbial phrase)
The young
woman was beautiful, slender and well-dressed. (adjectival phrase)
She
married a handsome but untrustworthy man. (noun phrase)
8 Smiling
happily, she congratulated the young couple on their
engagement.
She ran
along the road, shouting loudly.
Completely exhausted, she had a bath and went to
bed early.
Savagely
bombed by enemy aircraft, the area was a wilderness
for many years. Greatly amused by the speech, the crowd applauded
enthusiastically. Designed and made by her mother, the dress attracted a
great deal of admiration.
Walking slowly
and painfully, I eventually reached the doctor’s surgery.
9 They stood up and
applauded warmly.
I fell
over the cat.
The dog lay down by the fire.
Our neighbours are moving away.
He comes from London originally.
She asked for more time to pay.
Our guests set off after dinner.
I can’t put up with this noise any longer.
They brought up their children in extreme poverty.
The plane
will take off shortly.
The
effects of the sleeping pills wore off slowly.
