Contents of the Article:
DEFINITION
CLASSES
Coordinating
Copulative
Disjunctive
Adversative
Causal
Illative
Explanatory
Subordinating
Subject and predicate clause
Attributive substantive clause
Accusative clause
Prepositional clause
Object
Adverbial element
Adverbial clause
Relative clause
Definition and Classification of Conjunction
A conjunction is a word that joins together sentences or parts of a sentence:'Sweep the floor and dust the furniture.'
'He waited until I came.'
There are two general classes — coordinating and subordinating.
A coordinating conjunction, as and in the first example, binds together two independent propositions.
A subordinating conjunction, as until in the second example, joins a subordinate clause to the principal proposition, modifying it in some way. The first example is called a compound sentence, the second example a complex sentence.
The members of a compound sentence, however, are not always complete, each with subject and finite verb, for a natural feeling for the economy of time and effort prompts us, wherever it is possible, to contract by employing a common verb for all members, so that the conjunctions connect only parts of like rank: not 'John is writing and Mary is writing/ but 'John and Mary are writing,' or 'John and Mary are both writing/ or 'Both John and Mary are writing.' 'I bought paper, pen, and ink.' 'John writes fast but neatly.' Care must be taken in contracting when one subject is used with two different verbs each of which stands in a different compound tense: 'All the debts have been or will be paid/ or 'All the debts have been paid or will be,' but not 'All the debts have or will be paid.' Sentences containing these conjunctions, however, are often not an abridgment of two or more sentences, but a simple sentence with elements of equal rank, connected by a conjunction: 'The King and Queen are an amiable pair.' 'She mixed wine and oil together.'
Coordinating conjunctions also link together subordinate clauses of like rank: 'The judge said that the case was a difficult one and that he would reconsider his decision.'
Conjunctions, though often useful in binding sentences and joining clauses to the principal proposition, are not absolutely necessary. In the earliest stage of language development there were no conjunctions at all. This original state of things is still common: 'I came, I saw, I conquered.' Here the close connection of the thoughts holds the different independent propositions together. But such propositions are not always independent. One statement may be subordinate to another in thought, though there is no formal subordination. We place one statement alongside of another, leaving it to the situation to make the relation between them clear: 'Hurry up; it is getting late.' In more formal lan-guage we say, 'Hurry up because it is getting late.' The construction without a conjunction we call parataxis, i.e. placing alongside of.
The construction with a subordinating conjunction, as in the last example with the subordinating conjunction because, we call hypotaxis, i.e. subordination of one statement to another. As the intellectual life of the English people unfolded, it developed newer and finer hypotactical forms for fuller expression of its thought and feeling, but it wisely retained a good deal of its older para-tactical forms for daily practical use. Parataxis, however, by reason of its elegant simplicity is often employed also in various fields of the literary language.
When there are three or more coordinated parts of a sentence, usually only the last part is linked by a conjunction: 'He enjoys
tennis, golf, and baseball.' 'I brought in a basketful of red, pink, white, and yellow roses.'
The commas between the different words
of the series indicate a slight pause and consequently the independence of the parts. The independence is still more marked when the conjunction at the end of the series is lacking: 'She is a wise, sympathetic, hard-working teacher.'
On the other hand, this independence disappears in an unlinked series of adherent adjectives that are not separated by pauses.
The last adjective is subordinated to the others in that it stands in a closer relation to the governing noun: 'He lives in the first white house from here.' 'The saddest of lots is that of an indigent old man.'
Nothing in English grammar has changed so much within the Modern English period as our conjunctions. There was in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries a strong tendency to effect a greater simplicity and accuracy of expression by shortening and differentiating some forms and eliminating others as useless. These developments are described at length in Syntax.
In Syntax a full list of our English conjunctions is given in connection with a detailed account of their use. The subject is treated here only in outline.
A. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
The coordinating conjunctions and conjunctive verbs fall into six classes.1. Copulative Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adverbs.
They are: and; both — and; as well as; neither — nor; nor — nor (in poetry and older English); not — nor . . . either; no — or (or often nor when it is desired to call especial attention to what follows and thus emphasize); not only — but also (or but . . . too); too; moreover; besides; again; likewise; further, furthermore; there; th in the first place; first; secondly; finally; now — now; sometimes — sometimes; partly — partly; etc.Examples:
Money is lifeless and possessions are vain.
My brother and my sister are both married.
He can both sing and dance.
'He must irrevocably lose her as well as the inheritance,' or 'He must irrevocably lose her and the inheritance as well.'
Neither he nor his brother is to blame.
'Neither she nor I am to blame/ but 'Neither you nor he is to blame.'
It hasn't done me much good, nor anyone else either.
I can get no rest by day or night.
I want no promises nor notes (more emphatic than or notes); I want money.
'There is not only concision in these lines, but also elegance' (or 'but elegance too').
We both are without money; there comes in the difficulty.
We played an hour; then we went home.
Conjunctive adverbs, as there and then in the last two examples, not only join two independent statements but play the part of an adverb in the proposition in which they stand.
Similarly, a demonstrative pronoun or a possessive adjective performs in its own proposition its o w n part as demonstrative pronoun or posses-sive adjective and at the same time binds two principal propo-sitions together: 'In this crisis I have often thought of the old home, of Father, of Mother. That was a good place to start out in life from. Their lives have been an inspiration to me.'
Notice in the case of neither — nor where there are subjects of different persons that the verb agrees with the nearer subject, as in the sixth example. O n the other hand, if neither be construed as a pronoun with two appositives following it the verb is of course in the third person singular: 'Neither, she nor I, is to blame.'
a. 'And' Employed to Express Number, Repetition, Duration.
And is often placed between identical forms of a noun or a verb, not as a conjunction to connect thoughts, but merely as a means to express number, repetition, or duration: 'The entrance to the floor given to executive offices was like the lobby of a pretentious hotel — waiting room in brocade and tapestry; then something like an acre of little tables with typists and typists and typists, very busy, and clerks and clerks and clerks with rattling papers' (Lewis, Dodsworth). ' We insisted and insisted and insisted, not once but half a dozen times, at the beginning of the war, on Eng-land's adoption of the Declaration of London' (W. H . Page, Letter, Aug. 4, 1918).'I've tried and tried, but I've not succeeded.'
' My heart ached and ached and ached.'
2. Disjunctive Conjunctions.
They are: or; either — or; or — or (in poetry or older English); the disjunctive adverbs else, otherwise, or, or else:Examples:
Is he guilty or innocent?
'Either John or William is to blame,' but 'Either John or I am to blame.' Seize the chance, else (or otherwise, or, or or else) you will regret it.
Notice in the case of either — or where there are subjects of different persons that the verb agrees with the nearer subject, as in the second example, or it may be repeated with its own subject:
'Either John is to blame or I am.' O n the other hand, if either be construed as a pronoun with two appositives after it the verb is of course in the third person singular: 'Either, John or I, is to blame.'
3. Adversative Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adverbs.
They are: but, but then, only (= but, but then, it must however be added that); still, yet, and yet, however; on the other hand, again, on the contrary, conversely; rather; notwithstanding; all the same; though after all, for all that; at the same time; and withal, yet withal, or but withal (= at the same time, for all that); notwithstanding; in the meantime, meanwhile; etc.Examples:
He is small but strong.
The commander-in-chief has not been quite successful, but then he has essayed a difficult task.
He makes good resolutions, only he never keeps them.
'I want to go very much; still I do not care to go through the rain,' but still is an adverb in 'It is raining still.'
'I miss him, yet I a m glad he went,' but yet is an adverb in 'It hasn't quit raining yet.'
'He has sadly disappointed me.
However, as a mother I shall not give up hope' or 'As a mother, however, I shall not give up hope' or 'As a mother I shall not give up hope, however.'
'The sheep which we saw behind the house were small and lean; in the next field though (coordinating conjunction), there were some fine cows,' but though is a subordinating conjunction in ' Though it never put a cent of money into my pocket, I believe it did me good.'
The book is stimulating and sound to the core — yet difficult reading withal.
'Charles is usually cheerful; sometimes, again, he is very despondent,' but again is a copulative conjunction in 'Again (often, as here, at the beginning of a paragraph, continuing the discussion), man is greater by leaning on the greatest' (Emerson, Trust).
Again is an adverb of time in 'It is raining again.'
'I denied myself everything. Notwithstanding, the old skinflint com-plained without ceasing,' but notwithstanding is a preposition in 'I a m going notwithstanding the rain.'
4. Causal Conjunction 'For.'
Example: 'This is no party question, for it does not touch us as Republicans or Democrats but as citizens.' For the difference between coordinating for and subordinating as or since (next to last par.).5. Illative Conjunctive Adverbs.
They are: therefore, on that account, consequently, accordingly, for that reason, so, then, hence, thence (= from that source, hence also for that reason), etc.Examples:
No man will take counsel, but everybody will take money; therefore money is better than counsel (Swift).
The thing had to be done. Accordingly we did it.
There was no one there, so I went away.
'I am here, you see, young and sound and hearty; then don't let us despair' (or 'don't let us despair, then'), but then is a copulative conjunction in 'First think, then act.'
His means are limited, hence he is compelled to economize. (Fernald, Connectives in English Speech, p. 299).
'Guilt has been variously understood, thence (resulting therefrom) have arisen endless disputes about sin, responsibility,' etc. (ib.).
6. Explanatory Conjunctions.
They are: namely, to wit, vis. (short for Latin videlicet), that is (often written i.e. for Latin id est), that is to say, or, such as, like, for example (often written e.g. which is for Latin exempli gratia), for instance, say, let us say, etc.Examples:
There were only two girls there, namely, Mary and Ann.
M y wife suggested my going alone, i.e. with you and without her. I passed some time in Poet's Corner, which occupies an end of one of
the transepts, or cross aisles, of the Abbey.
Take a few of them, say a dozen or so.
Any country, let us say Sweden, might do the same.
B. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Some of these forms are pure conjunctions; others are junctions, but at the same time play in the clause the part of an adverb, pronoun, or adjective. Such adverbs, pronouns, and adjectives are called conjunctive adverbs, pronouns, and adjectives.
Conjunctive adverbs fall into two classes — indefinite conjunctive adverbs and interrogative conjunctive adverbs, as described in
Conjunctive pronouns and adjectives fall into three classes — indefinite relative pronouns and adjectives, interrogative conjunctive pronouns and adjectives, and definite relative pronouns and adjectives.
The first four of the following groups of conjunctions introduce substantive (noun) clauses. The fifth group introduces adverbial clauses. The sixth group introduces adjective clauses.
1. Conjunctions Introducing Subject and Predicate Clause.
The most common conjunctions for the subject clause are: that (or in popular speech as); frequently because instead of that; lest after nouns expressing fear, sometimes still as in older English used instead of that; an illogical but, but that, or in colloquial speech but what, instead of the more c o m m o n that after not impossible, not improbable, cannot be doubted; whether or if (especially c o m m o n in colloquial speech); the indefinite or interrogative conjunctive ad-verbs where, when, why, how; the indefinite or interrogative con-junctive pronouns who, whoever, what, whatever; the indefinite or interrogative conjunctive adjectives which, whichever, what, what-ever; the conjunctions since, before.
Examples:
'It is to be hoped that nothing has happened/ or 'It is to be hoped [that] nothing has happened.'
It is only natural as (popular form for that) I shuden't git things clear at fust as you've kept m e in the dark this two months (Sheila Kaye-Smith, Green Apple Harvest, p. 49).
Because (better that) they enjoy it is no proof that it is good for them. My only terror was lest m y father should follow me (George Eliot, Daniel Deronda, I, III, Ch. X X ) .
It could not be doubted that (or now less commonly but, but that, or but what) his life would be aimed at.
It is doubtful whether (or if) he is coming.
It is not known whether he did it or not.
It is not known how (indef. conj. adv.) he came by it.
It has often been asked how (interrog. conj. adv.) he came by it (in-direct question).
What (indef. rel. pron.) you say is quite true.
It is not known who (indef. rel. pron.) he is.
The question I want to ask is who (interrog. conj. pron.) he is (indirect question).
It is not yet known which, or more indefinitely what (indef. rel. adj.), road he took.
It is marvelous what (indef. rel. adj.) mistakes they continue to make.
It is many months since I have seen him.
It will be weeks before his disappearance will attract attention.
It was a week ago that wefirstmet.
On account of the handiness of the infinitive and the gerund we often prefer an infinitival or gerundial subject clause to a con-junctional clause: 'It is stupid of you to say it' (= that you say it). 'For us to delay (= That we should delay) would be fatal to our enterprise.' 'It is no use for you to say anything,' or your saying anything. 'His saying he is wrong alters the case.'
The nominative absolute construction is often used as a subject clause. The predicate of the clause is a present participle, the subject of the clause is a nominative absolute, usually a noun, much less commonly a pronoun: 'It is vilely un-just, men closing two-thirds of the respectable careers to women' (Sir Harry Johnston, Mrs. Warren's Daughter, Ch . III). 'He saying he is wrong alters the case.' The accusative is sometimes used here: 'It's no use him wiring back to me' (J. B . Priestley, The Good Companions, p. 594). W h e n the subject is a personal pronoun the usual construction is a gerundial clause. The gerund is the predicate of the clause, its subject is a possessive adjective, which historically is the old genitive of a personal pronoun: 'It's no use his wiring back to me.'
The conjunctions for the predicate clause are: as, before, after, because; the indefinite relative pronouns who (= man, boy, woman, etc.) and what; the indefinite conjunctive adverbs where, when, why, etc.
Examples:
Things are not always as they seem to be.
It was before her mother died that Ifirstmet her.
He is not who (= the man) he seemed to be.
W e are not what we ought to be.
That is where you are mistaken.
Now is when I need him most.
2. Conjunctions Introducing Attributive Substantive (Noun) Clause.
The conjunctions are: that (or in popular speech as); an illogical but, but that, or in colloquial speech but what after no question, no doubt instead of the more c o m m o n that; whether; the indefinite or interrogative conjunctive adverbs where, when, why, how; the indefinite or interrogative conjunctive pronouns who, whoever, what, whatever; the indefinite or interrogative conjunctive adjectives which, whichever, what, whatever.After these conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs, pronouns, and adjectives the attributive substantive (noun) clause often stands as an appositive to the noun preceding it. W h e n a conjunctive adverb, pronoun, or adjective is used the attributive element modifying the preceding noun m a y have also the form of an of-genitive or a prepositional clause. A s all these clauses are attributive, i.e. modify a noun, they have the force of an adjective.
Examples:
The thought that we shall live on after death in another better world consoles many (appositional clause).
I a m troubled by another fear, that Silvio will send out a search-party (appositional clause).
'I'd a feeling as (popular form for that) maybe you cud give me / etc.
(Sheila Kaye-Smith, Green Apple Harvest, p. 35) (appositional clause).
There is no doubt that (or sometimes but, but that, or but what) he will come (appositional clause).
I have often asked myself the question whether I have the right to do it (appositional clause; indirect question).
Now arises the question when (interrog. conj. adv.) we should go (ap-positional clause).
I have no information as to when (indef. conj. adv.) he will come (prepositional clause).
I have just read his description of how (indef. conj. adv.) he did it (of-genitive clause).
We have as yet no information as to why (indef. conj. adv.) he did it. (prepositional clause).
We have as yet no information as to who (indef. rel. pron.) did it. (prepositional clause).
'Now arises the question who (interrog. conj. pron.) the proper person is to do it' (appositional clause; indirect question), or in the form of a direct question: 'Now the question arises, W h o is the proper person to do it?' (appositional clause).
As yet we have no instructions as to which, or more indefinitely what (indef. rel. adj.), course we are to pursue (prepositional clause).
I haven't the least interest in what (indef. rel. pron.) he is doing, in what (indef. rel. adj.) views he holds (prepositional clause).
We sometimes prefer an infinitival or gerundial clause to a con-junctional clause: 'The time to do something (= that we should do something) has come.' 'I sent him the money in time for it to reach him (= that it should reach him) by Monday.' 'That is just our way, always arriving too late' or always to arrive too late. ' The hope of John's visiting us soon (= that John will visit us soon) cheers us.'
3. Conjunctions Introducing Accusative Clause.
This clause is the object of a verb: 'He told m e that he had done it.' After a passive the clause is retained: 'I was told that he had done it.' The conjunctions are: that (or in popular speech as); how = that; lest, sometimes still, as in older English, used after verbs of fearing instead of that; but, but that, or in colloquial speech but what, often used instead of that not after a negative or interrogative proposi-tion containing a verb of knowing, thinking, believing, expecting, fearing, or saying; an illogical but, but that, or in colloquial speech but what, sometimes used instead of the more c o m m o n that after a negative or interrogative proposition containing a verb of doubting, wondering; whether or if (especially c o m m o n in colloquial speech); the indefinite or interrogative conjunctive adverbs where, when, why, how; the indefinite or interrogative conjunctive pronouns who, whoever, what, whatever; the indefinite or interroga-tive conjunctive adjectives which, whichever, what, whatever.Examples:
'I know that he has come' or 'I know [that] he has come.'
I don't know as (popular form for that) I should want you should marry for money (W. D. Howells, The Minister's Charge, Ch. X X ) .
I saw that (or how) he was falling behind in the race. He feared that (or lest) it might anger her.
I don't know but (or but that or but what) it is all true ( = that it isn't all true).
Who knows but (or but that, or but what) it is all true? ( = that it isn' all true).
Who doubts that (or now less commonly but, but that, or but what) he will win?
I doubt whether (or if) the catastrophe is over.
I don't know when (indef. conj. adv.) he bought it.
He asked m e when (interrog. conj. adv.) I bought it (indirect question).
I do not know who (indef. rel. pron.) did it.
He asked m e who (interrog. conj. pron.) did it (indirect question).
I couldn't hear what (indef. rel. pron.) he said.
He has not told us yet which, or more indefinitely what (indef. rel. adj.) course he will pursue.
On account of the handiness of the infinitive and the gerund we often prefer an infinitival or gerundial accusative clause to a conjunctional clause: 'I desire him to go at once' (= that he go at once). 'I don't remember ever being scolded (= that I was ever scolded) by her.'
Notice the peculiar idiom ' W e could not help but laugh' or more commonly help laugh-ing.
4. Conjunctions Employed in Prepositional Clause.
This clause is composed of two elements — a preposition and its object, which here is always a substantive (noun) clause. The substantive clause is introduced by a conjunction or an indefinite conjunctive adverb, pronoun, or adjective. These conjunctions are: that, whether; the indefinite conjunctive adverbs where, when, why, how; the indefinite relative pronouns who, whoever, what, whatever; the indefinite relative adjectives which, whichever, what, whatever. The preposition and its object, the substantive clause, form a gram-matical unit — the prepositional clause. This clause serves usually as a prepositional object completing as a necessary comple-ment the meaning of a verb or an adjective or participle. Some-times the relation between the verb and the prepositional clause is less close; then the prepositional clause becomes an adverbial element.The relative adverbs, pronouns, and adjectives here are always indefinites, never interrogatives.
a. Prepositional Clause as Object.
The expression here is often elliptical.
Examples:I took his word for it that he would make an effort.
H e boasted [of it] that he did it.
I insist upon it that you go at once.
You may depend upon it that he will do it.
I will see to it that he does it.
I am sure [of it] that he will do it.
He was afraid [of it] that they would discover his dishonesty.
Veblen was right [about it] that ideas of this sort are opposed to the chaos of competitive enterprise.
She couldn't make up her mind [to it] that the price would have to be lowered.
He was perfectly at a loss [as to] what measure he should take.
We are not always conscious of why we do things.
I don't care [for] what people say.
Be careful (as to) how you do it.
She hesitated (as to) whether she should break in on his affliction.
I am not informed (as to) whether he went.
I am not informed (as to) when he will come.
I am curious as to how he is going to do it.
He gets furious against whoever opposes him.
He never speaks of what he has gone through.
I am not informed as to which (or more indefinitely what) course he will pursue.
He traded with what capital he had.
As shown by the above examples, the preposition stands im-mediately before a clause introduced by an indefinite conjunctive pronoun, adjective, or adverb; but if the clause is introduced by that it becomes necessary to place after the preposition the anticipa-tory object it, which points to the following clause, the real object. The it, however, is in certain expressions usually dropped.
The conjunctional clause is here often replaced by an infinitival or gerundial clause: 'His father forced him to make his own living.'
'I am accustomed to do (or to doing) it this way.' 'He is inclined
to take offense easily.' ' I am looking forward with pleasure to seeing
you again.' 'He is dead set against doing anything for me.' The
infinitive clause here is very interesting. The to before the in-
finitive is still a pure preposition and not a mere sign of the in-
finitive, as elsewhere.
In a number of cases the infinitival clause is older than the conjunctional clause. In the newer construction the preposition is always suppressed: 'They are anxious to win' and 'I a m anxious for (47 5 a, close of last par.) them to win,' but 'They are anxious that they should win' and 'I a m anxious that they should win.'
b. Prepositional Clause as Adverbial Element.
Examples:
The light came straight towards where I was standing (place).
But you do as you like with me — you always did, from when first you begun to walk (George Eliot, Silas Marner, Ch. XI) (time).
5. Conjunctions Introducing Adverbial Clause.
The adverbial clause modifies the principal verb by expressing some relation of place, time, manner, degree, cause, condition, exception, conces-sion, purpose, means. The more common conjunctions and con-junctive adverbs are: where, when, after, before, till, until, while, as if, as though, according as, so that, but that, but (= but that), so far as, as far as, than, that, because, since, if, unless, provide (that), in case, only that, except that, though, although, in order t etc. In concessive clauses an indefinite conjunctive pronoun, adjective, or adverb + ever is often used as a conjunction.Examples:
I live where the bridge crosses the river.
When you go home let me know.
Let me know when you are ready.
Do at Rome as the Romans do.
I went early so that I got a good seat.
He was more shy than [he was] unsocial.
I am sorry that you can't go with us.
The crops failed because the season was dry.
They will not go tomorrow if it rains.
In case it rains we cannot go.
I would come only that I a m engaged.
Although he promised not to do so he did it.
They are climbing higher that (or so that or in order that) they may get a better view.
He was resolved to defend himself whoever should assail him.
He willfinddifficulties whichever way he may take.
However sick he is, he always goes to work.
The conjunctional adverbial clause is very frequently replaced by a participial, infinitival, or gerundial clause.
The conjunctional adverbial clause is sometimes replaced by the nominative absolute construction: 'Thou away (= When thou art away) the very birds are mute' (Shakespeare). 'My knife slipping (= Because my knife slipped) I cut
myself severely.'
6. Relative Pronouns Introducing Adjective Clause.
The relative adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun: 'The boy who is leaning on the fence is m y brother.' 'The boy whom you see leaning on the fence is my brother.' Here who, though an inflected pronoun, is as much a conjunction as any of the conjunctions in the preceding lists, for it, like a conjunction, links the clause in which it stands to the preceding principal proposition. It is at the same time a conjunction and a pronoun, hence a relative pro-noun. The uninflected form which is used similarly: ' My brother owns the car which we rode in yesterday.'The relative clause with finite verb is often replaced by a participial clause: 'The circus was all one family — parents and five children — performing (= who performed) in the open air.'
The relative clause with finite verb is often replaced by an infinitive clause: 'He is not a man to be trifled with' (= that can be trifled with).
The definite relative which is sometimes used as a conjunctive adjective introducing an adjective clause: ' We traveled together as far as Paris, at which place we parted.'
