THE ADVERB [Contents]
DEFINITION, FUNCTION, POSITIONAdverbs in compounds and derivatives Adverbs used as other parts of speech
CLASSES
Classification by function
Simple adverbs
Sentence adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs
Coördinating conjunctive adverbs Subordinating conjunctive adverbs
Interrogative adverbs in principal propositions
Classification by meaning Place, direction, arrangement
Time
Manner
Attendant circumstance
Degree, restriction, extent, amount, number
Cause
Inference and result
Condition, exception
Concession
Purpose
Instrument, means, agency, association
Definition, Function & Position of Adverb
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. An adverbial modifier may assume the form of an adverb, a prepositional phrase or clause, or a conjunctional clause: 'He entered quietly.' 'Polish it well.' 'He entered in haste' (prepositional phrase). 'I could see the bird's loaded beak from where I stood' (prepositional clause). In the last example a preposition and its dependent clause together form an adverbial element. It is very much more common for a clause to form an adverbial element with the help of a subordinating conjunction: 'He entered as soon as he had taken off his over coat.'An adverb, as indicated by its literal meaning, joined to a verb, is an appositive to a verb, i.e. is placed before or after a verb to explain its meaning in the case at hand more clearly, much as an adjective as an appositive is placed before or after a noun to explain it: 'The girl is improving remarkably.' The same form is used as an appositive to an adjective or another adverb and here is also called an adverb, although of course it is here not true to its name: 'The girl is remarkably beautiful.' "The girl is improving remark ably fast.' An adverb, however, modifies not only thus a single word, but often also a prepositional phrase, a subordinate clause, or an independent statement as a whole: 'He has traveled entirely around the world.' 'He is almost across the river.' 'He lives a mile (adverbial accusative) beyond our house.' 'I arrived soon after it happened.' 'I did it only because I felt it to be my duty.'
An adverb that modifies an adjective or adjective element or an adverb or adverbial element usually precedes the modified word: 'She is very pretty.' 'She sings very beautifully.' An ad verb that modifies a verb precedes the verb if it itself has a weaker stress but follows the verb if it itself has the stronger stress: 'It's too bad! I utterly forgót it.' 'He acted prómptly. After the analogy of 'She would utterly forgét her past' many people say, 'She wishes to utterly forgét her past.' They feel that the adverb should stand before the more heavily stressed verb. Others think that the second sentence is incorrect, as the adverb stands between the preposition to and its object the infinitive forget. They call this construction the 'split infinitive' and studiously avoid it, saying here: 'She wishes utterly to forget her past.' Those who use the split infinitive feel that to is no longer a preposition, but a mere formal introduction to the infinitive clause and that consequently the adverb should stand here as elsewhere im mediately before the more heavily stressed verb. Almost every body, however, puts not before the to of the infinitive, because not is felt as modifying not the verb but the infinitive clause as a whole: 'He promised not to do it again.
As copulas and xilia are usually unstressed an adverb follows them. 'I am always cáreful.' 'We shall soon knów.' 'He doesn't cáre.' 'I have always trusted your judgment.' But with change of stress: 'I always ám careful.' 'I always háve trusted your judgment.' 'I slept beside a spring last night, and I never shall like a bedroom so well' (Meredith, Amazing Marriage, Ch. VI).
a. Adverbs in Compounds and Derivatives.
Adverbs often occur as the first component of compounds: uproot, overturn, underdone, outlying, tight-fitting, misjudge, return, coöperate, etc. The adverb not is usually replaced here by un-: unable, etc. In many foreign words the negative here is in- (or im-) or dis-: inconven ient, impossible, disobey. Some of these adverbs, mis-, un-, re-, co-, etc., which are not used outside of compounds, are called prefixes. Such compounds are termed derivatives.b. Adverbs Used as Other Parts of Speech.
Adverbs are often used as nouns: 'the ups and downs of Life'; 'the ins (the party in power), the outs' (the party out of power). 'He knows the ins and outs (details) of every political move.' Nouns made from adverbs are very common in prepositional phrases: until tomorrow, after tomorrow, since yesterday, etc.Adverbs are often used as pronouns: 'I saw him a year ago, but since then (used as demonstrative pronoun) we haven't met.' 'I saw him a year ago, since when (used as relative pronoun) I haven't seen anything of him.'
In older English, adverbs were often used as pronouns in prepositional phrases in which the preposition followed the adverb, adverb and preposition usually being written together as parts of a com pound: therein, now in it; therewith, now with it; wherein, now in what (interrogative) or in which (relative); wherewith, now with what (interrogative) or with which (relative); etc. A few of the old adverbial compounds, however, have survived in common use where they have acquired a special meaning, such as therefore, whereupon. In poetical and legal language the old adverbial compounds are still widely used in their original meaning and function.
Adverbs are often used as adjectives.
On the other hand, adherent and appositive adjectives which modify verbal nouns are in a formal sense adjectives, but they have the force of adverbs: 'his late arrival,' 'his last visit here.'
Classes of Adverb
Adverbs may be classified from different points of view:1. Classification Function:
There are four groups:
a. SIMPLE ADVERBS.
A simple adverb modifies a single word or a group: 'He came yesterday.' 'He is very industrious.' 'He runs very fast.' 'He walked almost five miles' (adverbial accusative). The simple adverb often modifies a prepositional phrase employed as an adjective or an adverb: 'He is almost across the river.' 'He swam almost across the river.' The simple adverb often modifies an adverbial clause: 'I arrived soon after it happened.'b. SENTENCE ADVERBS.
A sentence adverb modifies a sentence as a whole: 'You perhaps (or possibly) underrate my ability.' "You are probably (or 'probably are') right about it.' 'He must surely (or 'surely must') be there by this time.' 'He has evidently (or evidently has') made a mistake.' 'He will doubtless (or 'doubtless will') discover his mistake soon.' 'Unfortunately, the message failed to arrive in time,' or 'The message, unfortunately, failed to arrive in time,' or 'The message failed to arrive in time, unfortunately.' Negatives are common sentence adverbs: 'I never do such things.' 'He doesn't do such things.' 'He promises not to do it again.' The sentence adverb usually stands before a full verb and after or before a copula or auxiliary. Not infre quently, however, in the case of certain adverbs it may stand also at the beginning or the end of the statement, as in the sixth ex ample. The negative not precedes an infinitive.There is a peculiar group of sentence adverbs distinguishing adverbs: not, only, solely, simply, just, particularly, especially, even, also, at least, exactly (or precisely), etc These adverbs refer to the thought of the sentence as a whole, but at the same time call especial attention to a particular part of it. This particular part a word or a group of words is distinguished by placing one of these distinguishing adverbs before it or after it: 'Only John (or 'Jóhn only') passed in Latin.' 'John only (barely) pássed in Latin.' 'I have been influenced solely by this consideration.' 'I came just to see you.' 'Almost all of them arrived on time, even Jóhn' (or Jóhn even'). 'None of them will go; at least Jóhn (or 'Jóhn at least') will not.' 'Exactly whát (or 'Whát exactly') pagan ism was we shall never know.' 'Hé did it, not I.' 'He hit mé, not him.' 'He did it for the love of the cause, not for personal gain.' In 'Two points in his criticism are especially deserving of notice' especially is an ordinary adverb modifying the following adjective, but in 'Several of the boys deserve praise, especially Jóhn' (or 'Jóhn especially') it is a distinguishing adverb.
Nouns are often used as sentence adverbs to express feeling irritation, surprise, etc.: 'What the hell (or the devil or the deuce) do you want?' 'He is dead.''The devil he is.' They often express negation: 'Devil a one!' 'Not one!'
c. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS:
aa. Coördinating Conjunctive Adverbs.
A conjunctive adverb not only modifies some word in the proposition in which it stands, but also links the proposition in which it stands to the rest of the sentence or to a preceding sentence: 'We are both without money; there comes in the difficulty.' 'We played an hour; then we went home.' "There was no one there; so I went away.' 'I have had enough.' Then let us go!'In the strict sense these forms are always simple adverbs, for they always perform the function of a simple adverb in the proposition in which they stand. No formal connective links this in dependent proposition to the preceding independent proposition. The two propositions lie side by side without a formal binding tie. This is a form of parataxis, but yet there is a slight difference. These adverbs, like personal pronouns, not only perform their own function in the proposition in which they stand but also bind it to the preceding proposition. This construction is as old as our language and still has a vigorous life. Alongside of it is coördination with and: 'I forgot my pen; so I had to use my pencil,' or 'I forgot my pen, and so I had to use my pencil.' 'We ate lunch in the park, then went rowing,' or 'We ate lunch in the park, and then went rowing.'
bb. Subordinating Conjunctive Adverbs.
The two adverbial forms where and when are often used to introduce a subordinate adverbial clause: 'I sat where I could see them both plainly.' 'She was very despondent when I spoke with her last.' Here where and when are conjunctive adverbs, i.e. adverbs that have the force of subordinating conjunctions and at the same time perform another important function, namely, they modify as adverbs the verb of the subordinate clause in which they stand.In reading books from our older literature we often find in such adverbial clauses there and then where we now employ where and when: 'The erthe tremelyd there (now where) Wyllyam stood' Merch. & Son, 92, in Hazl. E. P. P. I. 139, sixteenth century). Then (now when) hys howndys began to baye, That harde (heard) the jeant there (now where) he laye' (Sir Eglam., 286, A.D. 1440). As can be seen by the words in parentheses the old demonstrative. conjunctives there and then have been replaced by the indefinite conjunctives where and when. There and then were replaced by where and when also in the adjective clauses. What caused this change in English expression in adverbial and adjective clauses? There and then were used also as coördinating conjunctions, as described in aa above for modern usage. Thus they were not so appropriate for the subordinate clause as where and when, which were employed in the substantive (noun) clause, a common subordinate clause. Where and when had for many centuries been widely used in substantive clauses and are still widely employed there, as is illustrated in the second paragraph after this one. Gradually they became established also in the adverbial and the adjective clause.
If the meaning is quite indefinite ever is added to where and when in adverbial clauses: 'She is happy wherever she is.' 'He always helps me whenever I need him.'
The adverbial forms where, when, how, why, whither, etc., are still common, as they have always been, in substantive (noun) clauses, i.e. in subject, object, attributive sub stantive, and prepositional clauses. Here as elsewhere they are conjunctive adverbs, i.e. adverbs that have the force of subordinating conjunctions and at the same time perform another important function, namely, they modify as ad verbs the verb of the subordinate clause in which they stand. These conjunctives are either indefinite conjunctives or interroga tive conjunctives. Interrogatives are merely a peculiar kind of indefinites, which often assume the special function of calling for an answer in an indefinite situation. As interrogative conjunctives always stand in a subordinate clause they are only indirect inter rogatives employed in indirect questions. Examples of indefinite and interrogative conjunctive adverbs: 'It is immaterial to me where and when (indef.) he goes.' 'It has often been asked where and when (interrog.) he went.' 'I do not know where (indef.) he is.' 'He asked me where (interrog.) I had been.' 'I do not know when (indef.) he went.' 'She asked me when (interrog.) he went.' 'I saw how (indef.) he did it.' 'I asked how (interrog.) he did it.' 'I asked why (interrog.) he did it.'
In older English, alongside of where, differentiated in meaning from it, were two other related indefinite forms in common use as indefinite conjunctive adverbs, whither and whence (or often from whence), the former indicating motion toward, the latter mo tion from. They are still in use in choice language, but in plain prose are replaced by where and where... from: 'I do not know whither (in plain prose where) he went.' 'I do not know whence (or from whence) he came' (in plain prose where he came from). These forms are used also as interrogative conjunctive adverbs: 'Then she asked me whither (in plain prose where) he went.' Then she asked me whence (or from whence) he came' (in plain prose where he came from). In older English, whether was often used instead of whither.
d. INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS IN PRINCIPAL PROPOSITIONS.
In indefinite situations where we desire to ask for information, we employ indefinites, not only as interrogative pronouns and interrogative adjectives, but also as interrogative adverbs, namely, when, where, whence (or in plain prose usually where -from), whither (or in plain prose usually where), why, how: 'When did he go?' 'Where does he live?' 'Whence did he come?' or more commonly' Where did he come from?' 'Whither (or more commonly where) did he go?' 'Why did he do it?' 'How did he do it?' In older English, whether was often used instead of whither.In older English, as is sometimes placed before the interrogative adverb how as a mere formal introduction: 'It is indeed a twofold Grief and a twofold Pleasure.' As how, my Dear?" said he' (Richardson, Pamela, II, 362, A.D. 1785).
2. Classification by Meaning.
An adverbial element modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb by expressing some relation of place, time, manner, attendant circumstance, degree, restriction, extent, cause, inference, result, condition, exception, concession, purpose, or means. Though usually different in meaning from a genitive, dative, accusative, or prepositional object it always performs the same function, i.e. it modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb. The adverbial modifier differs from an object in that its relation to the modified word is less close.A prominent feature of English is the wide use of the predicate appositive construction with adverbial force. An ad jective, adjective participle, or a noun is placed near the verb, before or after it, to modify it as to some relation of time, manner, attendant circumstance, cause, condition, concession, etc.: Tired and hungry (As we were tired and hungry) we went home.' 'Going down town (=As I was going down town) I met a friend.' 'A younger son in a proud family (=As he was a younger son in a proud family), Hume was really disinherited.' 'She ran into the house crying' (manner). 'He came home tired' (attendant cir cumstance). 'He was shunned as a man of doubtful character' (cause). As is shown by the many examples given below, the participle is a favorite in this construction.
a. ADVERBS OF PLACE, DIRECTION, ARRANGEMENT.
They are. here; hence or from hence (archaic, poetic, or literary), now usually from here, away, from now; thence, or from thence (archaic, poetic. or literary), now usually from there, away; there; yonder; hither (poetic or literary), now usually here, to this place; hether, in older English sometimes used instead of hither; thither (poetic or liter ary), in plain prose now there, to that place; thether, in older English sometimes used instead of thither; in, out, up, down, around; first (ly), secondly, etc.; where (interrog.); whither (interrog.; in poetry and choice prose) or now more commonly where; whence (interrog.; in poetry and choice prose) or now more commonly where from; etc.: 'He lives here.' 'Hence (now usually from here) might they see the full array of either host' (Scott, Marmion, VI, xxiii). From hence (now from here) I went to the Card Manu factory' (George Washington, Diary, Oct. 28, 1789). 'We must think of what the family needs will be five years hence' (literally from here, from this point of time). 'I have relatives five miles hence' (older English, now from here or away). 'Barry followed the route taken by the others, along the platform to the corner of the station and thence across an area of sun-smitten gravel to the main thoroughfare of Wessex' (R. H. Barbour, Barry Locke, Ch. I). 'Two miles thence is a fine waterfall.' 'I live in Chicago; I was born there. My brother lives in Seattle. I intend to go there some day to visit him.' 'Yonder among the hills are some beautiful little lakes.' 'Harry Esmond, come hither' (Thackeray, Henry Esmond, IV, Ch. XI), now here. The old home is a fine place to think of; thither in memory I often go.' 'Is your father in?' - 'No, sir, he has just gone out.' 'He went in.' 'Where does he live?' In popular speech many say 'Where is he at?' to express rest, and Where did he go to?' to express motion and direction, but in literary language we say here: 'Where is he?' and 'Where did he go?' preferring the more simple construction, although it is not so expressive. But even in literary language we must say: 'Where did he come from?' for otherwise the thought would not be clear. Where we use where and a preposition (at, to, or from), where ceases to be an adverb and becomes a noun. In colloquial speech any place, some place, no place, every place, are often used instead of the literary forms anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, everywhere.In older English, as was often placed before an adverb or other expression of place as a mere formal introduction: 'Let hym go and marry her, for as here he hath no thynge to do' (Berners, Huon, CLVI, 602, A.D. 1534).
The adverbial element here often has the form of a prepositional phrase: 'He lives in that house. The object of the preposition may be a substantive clause introduced by the conjunctive adverb where: 'I walked over to where they were standing.' Here the preposition to forms with its object, the substantive clause,
an adverbial prepositional clause.
Where often introduces an adverbial clause: 'One likes to live where one has congenial neighbors.'
b. ADVERBS OF TIME.
They are: now, now and then, then, formerly, yesterday, today, tomorrow, immediately, hence, henceforth, henceforward, thence, thenceforth, thenceforward, when (interrog.), etc.: 'It is not raining now.' 'I visited him a few days ago; he seemed as well as usual then.' 'Five years hence, a fortnight thence.' 'When will he arrive?'The accusative of a modified noun is often used as an adverb of time: this morning, last week, etc.
a. Also the genitive is used adverbially: always, etc.
In older English, as was often placed before an adverb or other expression of time as a mere formal introduction: a provence untoucht in a manner, and new to us as till then' (Bolton, Florus, 163, A.D. 1618). This old usage survives in as yet: 'He hasn't come as yet.' It is much better preserved in British dialect: 'I expect him as next week.' A little earlier in the period it was still lingering in the literary language: 'I heard that Mr. Carlyle would be in town as today' (Lady Levison in Mrs. Henry Wood's East Lynne, III, 223, A.D. 1861).
The adverbial element here often has the form of an adverbial clause introduced by the conjunctive adverbs when, whenever, etc.
The form of the adverbial element is often that of a prepositional phrase or a prepositional gerundial clause: 'We are going after dinner or after finishing (or having finished) our dinner.'
The form is very frequently that of a conjunctional clause: 'We are going after we have had dinner.' 'We must finish our work before we go.' 'He hasn't written me since he went away.' 'I shall come as soon as I can.' 'I turned homeward directly (British English for as soon as) it began to rain.' 'John worked while Henry played. While (or whereas or at the same time that, all with ad versative force) in applied physics we hold our own, in applied chemistry we have lost much ground.' 'Stay here until (or till) I come back. Until (preferred to till when its clause stands first, as here) he told me, I had no idea of it' (Concise Oxford Dictionary). 'I met him as he was coming out of his house.
Instead of a conjunctional clause we often employ a participial clause: 'Going down town I met a friend.' 'Having finished my work I went to bed.'
Time is sometimes expressed by the absolute nominative construction: The preparations for supper having been completed, the hungry children were called in.'
c. ADVERBS OF MANNER.
They are: well, slowly, fast, neatly, how, somehow, someway, etc.: 'He walked slowly.' 'How did you do it?' 'How does it strike you?' 'I forget how Mrs. Nightingale came into the conversation, but she did somehow' (or someway).The adverbial element often has the form of a prepositional phrase or a prepositional gerundial clause: 'She does it in this way.' 'It strikes me in an entirely different way.' 'She spends her eve nings in practising on the piano.'
The adverbial element often has the form of a conjunctional clause: 'Do it how (indef. conjunctive adv. in whatever manner) you can.' 'He differs from his colleagues in that he spends his spare time in reading.' 'It struck me that the whole thing was ridiculous,' or in the form of a predicate appositive (8, 5th par.) adjective introduced by as: 'It struck me as ridiculous.' 'Do at Rome as the Romans do.' 'He looks as if (or as though) he were about to speak. In colloquial speech like is widely used instead of as: 'They don't know you like (= literary as) I do' (Hergesheimer, Balisand, p. 36). In older English, like was used with the force of as if (or as though), and elliptically with the verb suppressed it is still used with this meaning: 'I ran like mad.' "The dress looks like new.' 'Bring in your old faded pictures. They will be made like new' (advertisement). As if or as though is more common here: 'She hurriedly left the as if (or as though) angry.'
b. The form is sometimes that of an infinitival clause: 'Thus ever about her rooms she moved on this mournful occupation until the last thing had been disposed of as either to be sent back or to be destroyed' (Allen, Mistletoe). 'He raised his hand as if (or as though) to command silence.' Manner is very frequently expressed by a participle or a par ticipial clause: 'She came in singing.' 'He stood leaning against the gate.' 'He beat me jumping.' 'He was busy fixing his fence.'
'It was kind of you to bother yourself asking her.' 'Please do not understand me as having lost hope.'
Manner is sometimes expressed by the nominative absolute construction: 'He put on his socks wrong sideout. They walked along arm in arm.' 'They sat side by side.'
d. ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS OF ATTENDANT CIRCUMSTANCE.
The form here is often that of a prepositional gerundial clause: 'He never passed people without greeting them.' 'He never passed peo ple without their greeting him.'Attendant circumstance is sometimes expressed by a conjunc tional clause: 'The enemy devastated the country as he retreated.' 'He never passed anybody on the street that didn't greet him' (or but or but that or in colloquial speech but what he greeted him). 'He was drowned while he was bathing in the river.
This idea is expressed also by a participial clause: 'He was drowned bathing in the river.
Attendant circumstance is often expressed by the absolute nominative construction: 'He left for the continent, all his family accompanying him.' 'He entered upon the new enterprise cautiously, his eyes wide-open.' 'We intend to hold a concert, the proceeds to be devoted to charity.' 'They decided to start out at random the first day, each man to use his own best judgment in prospecting. The preposition with is often placed be fore the absolute nominative construction, so that the expression in a formal sense becomes a prepositional clause but in spirit remains unchanged: 'He lay on his back, his knees in the air,' or with his knees in the air.
e. ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS OF DEGREE, RESTRICTION, EXTENT, AMOUNT, NUMBER.
The form here is often that of a simple ad verb: very, nearly, almost, about, only, much, little, so, once, twice, etc. Examples: 'She is very kind.' 'We are nearly there.' 'He almost died.' 'It is about empty.' 'I have been there only twice.' 'He shot better than his father.' 'He shot best.' 'He worries much.' 'He works little.' 'I didn't expect to find him so weak.' 'He struck me twice.' The accusative of a noun or pronoun is much used to express degree, extent: 'Is he any better this morning?' 'He lives a mile from here.' 'He lived there three years.'Certain intensifying adverbs impart feeling to the statement: 'I don't see why people should get up so déucedly éarly.' 'It's dámned hót today.’
The adverbial element of degree is often a prepositional phrase:
'He is taller by two inches.' 'He is by far more industrious.'
The different categories of degree are frequently expressed by different kinds of adverbial clauses:
A conjunctional clause of simple comparison:
'I am as tall as she [is].
A conjunctional clause of proportionate agreement:
'This stone gets the harder the longer it is exposed to the weather.
A conjunctional clause of restriction: 'So far as I could see they were all satisfied with the arrangement.
The full clause is sometimes replaced by a prepositional phrase: 'He may be dead for all I know.
The restriction is sometimes expressed by a participial clause: 'The inquiry, so far as showing that I have favored my own interests, has failed.'
A conjunctional clause of extent:
'I have stood it as long as I can.' 'I have walked as far as I can.'
The full clause can be replaced by an infinitive clause: 'I have gone as far as to collect statistics for my investigation.'
As far as in this example is a conjunction. As it is used also as a preposition, it can introduce a prepositional gerundial clause: 'I have gone as far as collecting statistics for my investigation.'
A conjunctional comparative clause: She is better than [she was] when I wrote you last.' 'I regard her more highly than he [does],' but 'I regard her more highly than [I do] him.'
f. ADVERBS OF CAUSE.
They are: why (interrogative), for what reason (interrogative), etc.: 'Why did you do it?'The adverbial element here often has the form of a prepositional phrase or a prepositional gerundial clause: 'He was punished for disobedience or for disobeying his mother."
The commonest form is that of a conjunctional clause: 'He was punished because he disobeyed his mother.' Now that he is sick we shall have to do his work.' 'How convince him when he will not listen?' 'Once (or after) you have made a promise you should keep it.' 'He cannot be tired since he has walked only half a mile.' 'The girls could not speak for fear or for fear that or lest the tears should come and choke them.' As he refuses we can do nothing." 'I saw that I had done something wrong as they all laughed.' 'The act was the bolder that he stood utterly alone.' 'We were sorry (that) you couldn't come.' 'I am glad (that) he is going.' 'I am astonished that you believe such a thing.' 'He rejoiced that he should have received the esteem of his sovereign.' 'My conscience troubles me that I have been so remiss.'
Cause is often expressed by an infinitival or participial clause: 'I was pained to hear it.' 'You ought to be ashamed stealing from a poor widow. Having run for an hour, we were almost exhausted.'
Cause is sometimes expressed by the absolute nominative construction: The bridge across the chasm being only a single tree trunk, we hesitated to attempt the passage. There being no objections, the minutes were adopted as read.' The absolute nominative may be a clause: 'We bought some more, what we had not proving sufficient. The preposition with is often placed before the absolute nominative construction, so that the expression in a formal sense becomes a prepositional clause but in spirit remains unchanged: 'With knowledge increasing by leaps and bounds we have reached a time when we must be content with specialisms.' 'She is lonesome with her husband so much away."
g. ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS OF INFERENCE AND RESULT.
Simple adverbs: therefore, consequently, hence, thence, so, thus, then, etc. Examples: 'No man will take counsel, but every man will take money; therefore money is better than counsel' (Swift). 'His means are limited, hence he is compelled to economize.' "There was no one there; so I went away.' 'I have had enough.' 'Then let us go.'The adverbial element here is often a prepositional phrase: 'It has been raining all week; on that account (or for that reason; both consequently) we have not been able to do our plowing.' In all these cases the propositions are coördinated. The second proposition is introduced by an adverb or adverbial element with the force of a coördinating conjunctive adverb.
Result is often expressed by a subordinate adverbial clause.
Pure result:
'A man ought to have a settled job, with an office in some fixed place, so that (in colloquial speech often simple so) you always know where he is.' 'I must have been blind that I didn't see that post.' 'He never played with the children that he didn't stir up a quarrel' (or but, but that, or colloquially but what he stirred up a quarrel; or in the form of a prepositional gerundial clause: without stirring up a quarrel).
Manner clause of modal result: 'He has always lived such a life that he can't expect sympathy now.'
Degree clause of modal result: 'She worried so that she couldn't go to sleep.'
Frequently result is expressed by an infinitival or participial clause. Pure result: 'Put on your gloves so as to be ready.'
Manner modal result: 'He has never lived só as to inspire respect.' 'This is not such weather as to encourage outdoor sports.'
Degree modal result:
'He was so kind as to help me.' 'He was too tactful to mention it.' 'He was old enough to know better.'
The infinitive is the usual form where the result is represented, not as the effect of the cause indicated in the principal proposition, but as coming from some independent cause: 'They parted never to see each other again.' 'He awoke to find all this a dream.' Participial clause of result: 'He mistook me for a friend, causing me some embarrassment.
After an accusative object, result is often expressed by a prepo sitional phrase, which, however, is not an adverbial element but an objective predicate: 'She rocked the baby to sleep' ('She rocked the baby so that it went to sleep'). 'He smoked himself into calmness.'
h. ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS OF CONDITION OR EXCEPTION.
The form for condition is sometimes that of a simple adverb, a prepo sitional phrase, or a prepositional gerundial clause: 'Suppose you had never a farthing but of your own getting; where would you be then?' (in that case). Without him I should be helpless.' 'He can't walk without my helping him.'The most common form is that of a conjunctional clause: 'If it were not for him I should be helpless.' 'I would have done it before if I had had time.' 'I would come, only that (or were it not that) I am engaged.' 'I shall go unless it rains.' 'You may go on condition that you come home early.' 'We should have arrived earlier but that we met with an accident.' 'I will come provided (or provided that) I have time. In case it rains I can't go.' 'You may go where you like so that (or in colloquial speech just so or simple so) you are back by dinner time.
The conjunctional clause is sometimes replaced by an independent proposition in the form of a question or a command, which is used with the force of a subordinate clause introduced by if: 'Is any among you afflicted? let him pray' (James, V, 15). 'Should you find them (interrogation sign now usually suppressed, as in this example), kindly let me know.' 'Do it at once, you will never regret it.'
Condition is sometimes expressed by a participial or infinitival clause:
'Left to herself (= if she had been left to herself) she would have been drawn into an answer.' 'This same thing, happening in wartime ( if it should happen in wartime), would amount to disaster.' 'One would think, to hear them talk ( if one should hear them talk), that England is full of traitors.'
Condition is sometimes expressed by the absolute nominative construction described:
'Our ship sails tomorrow, weather permitting. Other things being equal I prefer an August vacation.'
Exception is often expressed by a conjunctional clause: 'I don't believe that God wants anything but that we should be happy." 'Nothing would content him but I must come.' 'My boy is as naughty as yours except that he always begs my pardon.' The elliptical clause is still more common: 'Who can have done it but I?' (Hardy, The Return of the Native, V, Ch. I), in colloquial speech often but me. 'All save he and Murray have pleaded guilty' (Chicago Tribune, Nov. 12, 1924). 'Everyone except me (or less commonly I) seems to dislike him.' Here I shows that except under the influence of but is felt as a subordinating conjunction. The more common me here indicates that except is more frequently regarded as a preposition or as the imperative of the transitive verb except. The usual me after but in colloquial speech shows that but is here felt as a preposition.
i. ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS OF CONCESSION.
The form is sometimes that of a simple adverb: "That is how I look at it, anyway' (or anyhow; both 'however the case may be'). 'There is something wrong somewhere. Anyway, nothing will ever induce me to believe that' (Mackenzie, Sylvia and Michael, p. 29).The form is more commonly that of a prepositional phrase or a conjunctional clause: 'We are going in spite of the rain. For all his learning he is a mean man.' 'For all he laughs and pooh-poohs, he really suffers.' 'We are going even if it rains. Although he seems rough he is really tender-hearted." 'Notwithstanding (that) he is being lionized, he still keeps a level head.' 'It is true whether you believe it or [whether you do] not [believe it].' 'Whether he succeed(s) or fail(s), we shall have to do our part.' An indefinite relative pronoun, adjective, or adverb + ever often serves as the conjunction in this clause: 'I am going whatever he says.'
The conjunctional clause is often replaced by an expression of will, which, though independent in form, is logically dependent: 'Laugh as much as you like, I shall stick to my plan.' 'Come what may, I am bound to see him.' 'Home is home, be it ever so homely.' 'Detest him as we may, we must acknowledge his greatness.' 'Hurry as you will, you are sure to be late.'
Concession is sometimes expressed by a participial or infinitival clause: 'From dawn to dark in this car, driving or riding (= whether you drive or ride), you'll never feel that you have put a whole day's miles behind you' (advertisement). 'You couldn't do that to save your life' (= even if you would save your life by it).
Concession is sometimes expressed by the absolute nominative construction, usually with the predicate of the clause before its subject: 'Granted the very best intentions, his conduct was productive of great mischief.' The absolute nomi native may be a clause: 'Granted that he did so, what are you going to do?'
j. VERBIAL ELEMENTS OF PURPOSE.
The form is that of a prepositional phrase, a prepositional gerundial clause, or a conjunctional clause: 'I bought the book for reference.' 'John works for grades.' 'I came with the intention of helping you.' 'They are climbing higher that (or in order that or so that or in colloquial speech simple so) they may get a better view.' 'He is keeping quiet that he may not disturb his father' (or for fear or for fear that or lest he should or might disturb his father).Quite frequently the form is that of an infinitival or participial clause: 'I am waiting to go with John.' 'I am waiting for them to go before I speak of the matter.' 'I am going early so as (or in order) to get a good seat.' 'Axmen were put to work getting out timber for bridges.'
