Syntax being a major part of grammar, its function/activity is on the well-formation and structure of the sentences.
Structure and formation of sentences, subject-verb agreement, right form of verb, usages of parts of speech and other important topics are discussed under syntax.
In this article, 37 basic rules of sentence structure (syntax) have been explained with examples:
❒ Basic Rule-1:
A verb must agree with its subject in number and person ; as, He is ill; I am happy; They were happy.
❒ Basic Rule-2:
The Error of Proximity
The verb is sometimes made, through mistake, to agree in number with a noun or pronoun near it, instead of with its subject.
This should be guarded against.
One of them was (not, were) present there.
The best of the boys has (not have) got a prize.
The presence of so many men is encouraging.
Each of the girls is clever.
❒ Basic Rule-3:
(a) The Common Noun following one of the should be in the plural number.
He is one of the best boys (not, boy).
One of the men (not, man) gave me the book.
Lend me one of the pens.
NOTE:
(i) In the sentence "One of the rooms is closed", the subject is one of and the actual subject-word is one; hence the verb should be in the singular.
The corrected sentence would be: One of the rooms is closed (not are closed).
(ii) One of, followed by a plural noun or pronoun and a relative clause, often leads to error because it encourages a singular verb:
He is one of those persons who is never satisfied with his job.
This is one of the buildings that was destroyed in the earthquake.
The antecedent of who and that is not one, but persons and buildings respectively.
It is therefore plural.
The corrected sentences would be:
He is one of those persons who are never satisfied with their job.
This is one of the buildings that were destroyed in the earthquake.
(iii) One in ten boys is in default. Two in ten boys are in default.
❒ Basic Rule-4:
When an Infinitive, a Gerund, a Verbal Noun, a Clause or Phrase is the subject, the verb is in the third person singular:
To err is human.
Swimming is a good exercise.
The writing of letters well is not easy.
That he is ill is known to all.
Success at any cost was his aim.
❒ Basic Rule-5:
When a Collective number is meant, the noun, though plural in form, has a singular verb:
Fifty rupees is enough for me.
Twenty shillings makes one pound.
Three miles is a long distance.
Eight annas was the price of the thing.
But "Twice two is four" and "Twice two are four" are equally correct. – MEU
❒ Basic Rule-6:
The name of a thing or a country, though plural in form, takes a singular verb. The United States of America is a rich country.
The Folk Tales of Bengal is a good book.
❒ Basic Rule-7:
A Collective noun takes a singular verb when the things or persons are taken collectively, and a plural verb when they are taken separately:
The class is large.
The audience are requested to take their seats.
We must be consistent. Thus, we should write, "The Board has agreed to grant a bonus to its (not, their) employees."
The mob do (not, does) not know their mind.
NOTE: (a) "Should a collective noun be considered singular or plural? In this matter, as in others, the fashion of grammar changes..... This is mercifully a question in which each may decide for himself: but once having decided, he must be consistent. If he treats his noun as a singular, singular it must be throughout."
– A.B.C. of Eng. Usage.
(b) "Another difficulty arises with collective nouns that are followed by a partitive genitive. A number of people, books, towns 'are' or 'is'?
Here the force of attraction is at work. If a plural noun follows the of, the verb is almost inevitably, and on the whole justly, made plural by attraction." – A.B.C. of Eng. Usage.
❒ Basic Rule-8:
(a) If the Subject and the Complement are of different numbers, the verb must agree with Subject.
Our guide was (not, were) the stars.
The stars were our guide.
Germany's great need was colonies.
Colonies were Germany's great need.
(b) Special attention is to be paid to the use of the number after "what", which may be both singular and plural. In each of the following sentences, what starts as singular because a singular verb follows it; but the next verb (belonging to that of that which) is made plural on account of the influence of the plural complement. This is wrong.
What is required are (should be, is) houses at fair rents.
What seems to be needed are (should be, is) strict measure.
What strikes me most there are (should be, is) its beautiful roads.
The mistake is of the opposite kind in the following:
We have been invited to abandon what seems to be the most valuable paris of our constitution (read seem; abandon the parts of our constitution that seem).
He decided, for what was good reasons, not to go there (read were ; for reasons that were).
(c) Care should be taken about the use of the number in sentences beginning with introductory "there". There is is used when referring to something singular; as,
There is a big tree near my house.
When referring to something plural, use there are, as,
There are many good schools in the town.
Errors sometimes occur in longer sentences; as;
There is my friend Rakesh, my parents and uncle Subhas to help me.
What is being referred to here is plural (friend Rakesh, parents and uncle Subhas) and the sentence should start with there are.
❒ Basic Rule-9:
Two or more singular subjects joined by and, expressed or understood, take a verb and a pronoun in the plural.
Ram and Shyam were there, but they did nothing.
She and her father have gone to their village.
Exceptions:
(i) If the subjects denote the same person or thing, the verb and the pronoun should be singular:
"The Secretary and Treasurer has come"-Here the same man is both Secretary and Treasurer.
If two different persons were meant, the article the would have been repeated before 'Treasurer' and the verb would have been have.
(ii) When the subjects express a single idea, the verb and the pronoun are singular.
The long and the short of the story is this.
A hue and cry was raised.
Slow and steady wins the race.
Bread and milk is his only food.
(iii) When each, every or no is put before each noun, the pronoun and the verb should be singular:
'Each man and each woman gets a shilling',
'Every star and every planet is the handiwork of God',
'No friend and no relative cares for me.'
Even when each or every is not repeated, the verb is singular :
Every man, woman and child was killed. – MEU. p. 24.
"Every Tom, Dick and Harry plays golf nowadays." – Good English by G.H. Vallins.
(iv) When and is followed by a negative word as no, not, the verb and the pronoun should be of the same number as the noun or pronoun preceding and.
'A friend, and not a foeBgreets you.'
'Two pens only, and no book, are required.'
❒ Basic Rule-10:
When a noun or pronoun is joined with another noun or pronoun by with, together with, or as well as, the verb agrees with the noun or pronoun preceding these:
Ram, with (or together with) his friends, was punished.
They, with their father, were punished.
I, with my brother, am to go.
Ram as well as his friends is expected.
But it is better to avoid such constructions.
❒ Basic Rule-11:
Singular subjects jointed by either—or, neither—nor, take singular verbs and pronouns:
Either he or his brother is guilty.
Neither he nor his brother is guilty.
❒ Basic Rule-12:
(a) "If alternative members differ in number etc., the nearest prevails (Were you or he, was he or you, there?"; either he or you were, either you or he was), but some forms (e.g. was I or you on duty?) are avoided by inserting a second verb (was I or were you...?)." — MEU
(b) "When there are alternative subjects co-ordinated by or or nor, one singular and one plural, the verb agrees with the one which immediately precedes 'it'.
Neither the child nor her companions have been heard of since.
Either the children or their nursemaid has taken the book." —F.T. Wood.
Neither the teacher nor the students are coming.
Neither the students nor the teacher is coming
❒ Basic Rule-13:
When subjects of different persons are joined by either—or, neither—nor, the verb agrees with the subject, nearest to it:
Either he or I am to blame.
Neither he nor you are guilty.
Either, he or they are guilty.
❒ Basic Rule-14:
In the position of Nouns and Pronouns of different persons, the second person stands first, the third person second, and the first person last:
You, Ram (or he) and I have been rewarded.
But in confessing faults, courtesy requires that the usual order should be reversed:
I, Ram and you are all guilty.
❒ Basic Rule-15:
When subjects of different persons are joined by and, the personal pronoun to be used for them should be of First Person, if one of the subjects is of that person; of the Second Person, if one of the subjects is of that person, and none of the First:
Ram and I did our works.
You and I did our duties.
You and Leela did your lessons.
You, Leela and I did our duties.
❒ Basic Rule-16:
The Relative Pronoun agrees in number, gender and person with its antecedent:
I who am your leader command you.
This is the lady who has lost her ting.
Those who are guilty shall be punished.
He was one of the best boys that were seen there.
It is useless to me who have left the world.
❒ Basic Rule-17:
When a Relative Pronoun has apparently two antecedents of different persons, the verb and the pronoun agree with the antecedent nearer to them:
I am the man who helps you.
You are the person who helps me.
I am the man who has lost his pen.
NOTE: In the above sentences each relative has really one antecedent only (shown in italics). I in the first sentence, you in the second, and I in the third are not the antecedents of who.
❒ Basic Rule-18:
"To be" verbs take the same case before and after them:
Whom do you take me to be?
Who do men say that I am ? .. It is I.
NOTE: "But the fact remains that few people would say or write 'It's / "This is he'. 'That's she'. Usage, a trifle shamefacedly, admits the object form to such expressions, 'It's me', 'This is him', 'That's her'. — Good English by G. H. Vallins.
❒ Basic Rule-19:
The anticipatory It is used for masculine or feminine or neuter nouns, both singular and plural; but the verb is singular.
It was I (or you, or he or she, or they) that did it.
It was these books that I wanted.
❒ Basic Rule-20:
The Case of the pronoun following "then" and "as" has to be determined by mentally supplying the verb:
I love you better than he (loves you).
He loves you better than (he loves) me.
He is taller than I (am).
She is as tall as I (am).
He loves you as much as (he loves) me.
He is not so strong as you (are).
NOTE: Than is a conjunction; but it has come to be used as a preposition too in a few cases.
❒ Basic Rule-21:
A noun or pronoun in the Possesive Case should not be used as the antecedent to a Relative Pronoun.
Thus, instead of writing, "I went to the man's house who is my friend," we should write, "I went to the house of the man who is my friend."
❒ Basic Rule-22:
Emphatic Pronouns can never stand alone as subjects. Hence, we should write:
He and I (not, myself) went there.
I (not, myself) will do it.
But we can use :
He and I myself went there.
I myself will do it.
❒ Basic Rule-23:
There are a few Adjectives, such as alone, asleep, afraid, awake, aware, alive, content, etc., that can be used only predicatively:
I am alone.
He is asleep.
They are content.
He is afraid.
❒ Basic Rule-24:
Similarly, a few Adjectives, such as former, olden, etc., can be used only attributively:
He is a former teacher of this school.
This custom prevailed in olden times.
❒ Basic Rule-25:
Adjectives or Adverbs?
To express some quality of the subject, use the Adjective, not an Adverb. Students will do well to remember that if some part of the verb to be can be employed as a connective, the Adjective is required; but if any phrase denoting manner can be substituted; the Adverb should be used:
He looks angry.
He left the place angrily.
It tastes sweet.
He spoke sweetly.
We feel cold.
We were received coldly.
He feels sad.
He left the place sadly.
❒ Basic Rule-26:
The use of that in such comparisons as the following should be carefully noted: Ram's house is better than that of Jadu. The brother of Karim is taller than that of Abdul.
The population of India is larger than that of France.
His name is as fam.. as that of your brother.
If the first sentence were written as, "Ram's house is better than Jadu", it would have meant a comparison between Ram's house and Jadu, the man,—an absurdity.
Similarly, in the other sentences:
Conversely, note the absence of that in the following:
India is larger than France.
The Indus is longer than the Ganges.
I love your brother as much as Jodu.
❒ Basic Rule-27:
Adjectives of different degrees cannot be joined by and :
Incorrect: He is the strongest and very tall boy in the class.
Correct: He is the strongest and tallest boy in the class.
Incorrect: This town is more populous and very prosperous.
Correct: This town is very populous and very prosperous.
Or, This town is more populous and more prosperous.
❒ Basic Rule-28:
When objects of the same class are compared, other should be inserted after any, all or no to show the exclusion or separation:
But in comparison by superlatives other is not used:
He is the best of all the boys (not, all the other boys).
The Himalayas are highest of all mountains.
❒ Basic Rule-29:
Each and every are followed by a singular number. In phrases like every three hours, every = each group of.
Every man must do his duty.
Each of the boys was given a cup.
NOTE: In 'tag' questions, however, the plural is permissible for everyone and everybody when the statement that precedes it has a collective rather than a distributive sense e.g. Everybody can't be clever, can they?'
'Everyone present made a wild rush for the door, didn't they?
The tag for everything must always be singular:
'Everything looked beautiful, didn't it?'
'Everything has gone wrong today, hasn't it ?' — Wood.
❒ Basic Rule-30:
Repetition of the Article: When two or more Nouns joined by and refer to the same thing, the Article is used only before the first; but if they refer to seperate things, the Article should be repeated before each.
The Secretary and the Treasurer have done this. (Separate men).
The Secretary and Treasurer has done this (one and the same man).
❒ Basic Rule-31:
When Adjectives joined by and qualify a single noun to refer to different objects, the definite article is repeated before each adjective if the noun is singular, or the definite article is placed only before the first adjective if the noun is plural. But the verb is plural in both cases:
The first and the second boy were rewarded.
The first and second boys were rewarded.
The black and the white cow were sold.
The black and white cows were sold.
If the same object is meant, the article is not repeated and the noun is singular :
The black and white cow=one cow, partly black and partly white.
The black and the white cow=two cows, one black, the other white.
The deaf and dumb man=one man, both deaf and dumb.
The deaf and the dumb man=two men, one deaf and the other dumb.
❒ Basic Rule-32:
A single Auxiliary may serve two Principal Verbs if the construction allows it:
I have lost him but got (=have got) you.
Some were acquitted, and some punished (=were punished).
But let us examine the following sentences:
He has been enrolled, but your brother resigned.
I have retired, and a new man appointed.
Expanded, these sentences become "He has been enrolled, but your brother has been resigned," "I have retired and a new man have appointed," which are wrong.
The correct forms are:
He has been enrolled, but your brother has resigned.
I have retired, and a new man has been appointed.
❒ Basic Rule-33:
Two Auxiliaries may be used with one Principal Verb or Adjective when the form of the latter allows i:
I never have, nor ever will hurt anybody.
I did not, and will not, go there.
They are, and have been, always active.
But let us examine the following sentences :
I never have, nor ever will, go there.
They have and will always help me.
Expanded, the sentences become "I never have go there, nor ever will go there," "They have always help me and will always help me," which are wrong.
The correct forms are:
I have never gone there, nor will ever go.
They have always helped me, and will always help me.
❒ Basic Rule-34:
Prepositions come before their objects except (i) when the object is the relative pronoun "that":
This is the man that I spoke of.
I heard the story that was talked about.
(ii) Often when the object is an interrogative pronoun, or a relative pronoun understood:
What have you come here for?
What are you wondering ar?
This is the boy (that or whom) I spoke of.
It is the thing (which)) I asked for.
❒ Basic Rule-35:
One preposition is sometimes wrongly made to do the work of two. Thus, the following sentences are wrong:
He has come and will return to Japan.
He was appointed and dismissed from the post.
The correct forms should be:
He Has come from and will return to Japan.
He was appointed to the post and dismissed from it.
❒ Basic Rule-36:
Correlatives are pairs of words that are regularly used together. They are sometimes called correlative conjunctions; but that is hardly correct, because a member of the correlatives may be some thing other than a conjunction.
Here are some of the important correlatives :
(1) Both—and:
Both Ram and (not, as well as) Kali were present there.
He is both rich and (not, as well as) powerful.
N.B. If as well as is to be used, drop both; as, "Ram as well as Kali was present there. "
"He is rich as well as powerful."
(2) Either—or; Neither—nor:
Either he or his brother was there.
Neither the boy nor his brother was present.
(3) Not only—but also:
Not only he but his brothers also were present.
He insulted not only me, bur also my brother.
He is not only foolish but also wicked.
NOTE: "With the correlatives not only....but also it is perhaps rather pedantic to insist that the also must never be omitted. A sentence like the following may be regarded as quite acceptable English:
''Not only beginners, but even experienced craftsmen, may learn much from this book" — Wood.
(4) As — so:
As you sow, so shall you reap.
As I am ill (so) I cannot go.
NOTE: Good English requires that the clauses introduced by as, the causal conjunction, should precede the main clause.
(5) As—as; so—as :
He is as poor as you.
He is not so poor as you.
He is as eager as you are.
He is not so eager as you are.
NOTE: (a) Modern usage prefers 'so—as' for negative sentences.
(b) Guard against the use of "like" after "as" or "so".
The following sentences are wrong:
He is not so strong like (should be, as) you.
I am as eager like (should be, as) you come.
(6) So—that:
He is so angry that he cannot speak.
He is so weak that he cannot walk.
(7) Such—as:
Only such boys are wanted as (not, who or that) have passed.
The defect was such as to cause anxiety.
(8) Such—that:
Such was his misfortune that nobody helped him.
The defect was such that it caused anxiety.
(9) The same—as; the same—that:
This is the same book as (not, like) that.
He is the same person as (or, that) I saw yesterday.
But "Is this the same as, or the same that, or the same, you showed me before?" — POD.
(10) No sooner—than:
No sooner did I sit down than they left the place.
No sooner had he gone than I reached the place.
(11) Hardly—when (MEU and ABC of Eng. Usage):
Hardly was he gone when the party broke up.
Hardly had he left the house when it began to rain.
NOTE: But Nesfield gives both before and when after hardly.
(12) Scarcely — before or when (MEU) :
Scarcely had he left the house when (or before) it began to rain.
He was scarcely gone before (or, when) we reached the place.
NOTE: In clauses beginning with no sooner, hardly, scarcely the auxiliary precedes the subject as shown above.
(13) Other—than, besides; else—than, but:
Give me other books than this.
He has no other friend than you.
I have none else than (or, but) you.
No other person besides (in addition to) my friend.
❒ Basic Rule-37:
Each member of the correlative should be followed by words of the same class. So the following sentences are wrong:
(i) He not only went to you, but also to your father.
(ii) He helped me not only with men but also gave me some money.
(iii) He neither offended me nor my brother.
(iv) Neither did he work nor sleep.
(v) He helped me both with men and money.
(vi) I did this both for you and him.
In the first sentence, 'not only' is followed by a verb, but 'but also', by an adverb phrase.
In the second, 'not only' is followed by an adverb phrase, but 'but also', by a verb.
In the last, both is followed by a preposition, but 'and' is followed by a pronoun.
The correct forms should, therefore, be:
(i) He went not only to you but also to your father;
or, He not only went to you but also want to your father.
(ii) He not only helped me with men but also gave me some money;
or, He helped me not only with men but also with money.
(iii) He offended neither me nor my brother.
(iv) Neither did he work nor did he sleep;
or, He neither worked nor slept.
(v) He helped me both with men and with money;
or, He helped me with both men and money.
(vi) I did this both for you and for him.
or, I did this for both you and him.
