Ram is not here; he is ill.
He failed, which broke his heart.
❒ Classification — Pronouns may be divided into the following eight classes:—
(a) Personal (including Possessive)—I, thou, ye, you, he, she, it, hers, ours, etc.
(b) Demonstrative—This, that, such, so, etc.
(c) Relative—Who, whichever, which, that, what, as, whoever, whatever, etc.
(d) Interrogative—Who, which, what, etc.
(e) Distributive—Each, either, neither, etc.
(f) Reflexive and Emphasising—Myself, thyself, himself, etc.
(g) Indefinite—One, any, some, they, etc.
(h) Reciprocal—Each other, one another.
❒ Personal Pronouns are so called because they stand for persons, viz. –
(a) The First Person which denotes the person or persons speaking: as, I, my, me, we, our, etc.
(b) The Second Person which denotes the person or persons spoken to: as, you, thou, your, etc.
(c) The Third Person which denotes the person or persons spoken of: as, he, she, it, they, their, etc.
❒ Note— Strictly speaking, he, she and it are Demonstrative Pronouns, because they have a distinction of gender, which the Personal Pronouns have not. But this distinction is ignored by modern grammarians, who put them under Personal Pronouns as they often relate to the third person, as distinct from the first and second persons.
❒❒ Declension of Personal Pronouns:—
❒ It will be seen that the Possessive Cases of most of the Personal Pronouns have two forms. Of these :—
(a) My, thy, her, its, our, your, their are called Possessive Adjectives, because, like adjectives, they are used before nouns: my book, your name, its colour.
They are also called Pronominal Adjectives, because they are formed from pronouns.
(b) Mine, thine, hers, ours, theirs are called Possessive Pronouns, because they are now used without the noun and instead of the noun to which they refer Whose coat is this? It is mine (=my coat).
(c) His is used both independently and before a noun : as, This book is his or, This is his book.
❒ Double Possessives—Hers, ours, theirs are called Double Possessives, because they are twice inflected, r and s being two possessive suffixes.
❒ Mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs are used :—
(a) When the noun is understood: "Whose book is this? It is mine."
"This is my pen; where is yours?"
(b) When a verb comes between the noun and the pronoun:
"This book is mine." "This house is theirs."
(c) When the pronoun is preceded by of : This book of mine is cheap.
❒ Caution—The Possessive forms hers, ours, yours, its, theirs, etc. should never be written with the apostrophe. Thus, it is wrong to write her's, your's, or yours', their's, or theirs', etc. Its should not be confounded with it's which means it is or it has.
❒ Possessive of Interest is the possessive case of Personal Pronouns sometimes used familiarly to express interest : Our hero (=the man in whom I and my readers have taken so much interest) now left the field.
(a) The pronoun must be of the same gender and number as the noun for which it stands; but when the sex is uncertain, or not clearly stated, we commonly use the neuter pronoun it:
The boy (or boys) has (or have) done his (or their) work.
The girl (or girls) has (or have) done her (or their) work.
It is a healthy baby.
(b) But when the neuter form is not allowable, we sometimes use two pronouns, one masculine and the other feminine :
Every member can express his or her views. Every boy or girl may do as he or she likes.
Sometimes we use only the masculine form: Every candidate must bring his own pen. Each must do his best.
❒❒ The uses of "we" — We denotes the speaker and others, male and female. It is used for "I" —
(a) When one speaks for several. This is called the Representative "we" :
We welcome your Excellency (as the Chairman of a Municipality would say).
We find the prisoner guilty (as the foreman of the jury would deliver his verdict).
(b) By a person in high authority or official capacity. This is called the Royal "we":
We (the King) follow the footsteps of our ancestors.
(c) By the editor of a newspaper, to represent the whole people. This is called the Editorial "we":
We support the measure proposed by Government.
(d) To represent mankind at large : We must do our duty.
❒ Thou is seldom used except in :—
(a) Poetry: as, Thou art, O God!
(b) Prayer: as, Thou (i.e., God) lovest us all.
(c) Formerly, it was used in expressing familiarity or contempt: as, Thou art a mean fellow.
❒ You is now used both in the singular and in the plural with always a plural verb Ram, you are a wise man. Boys, you are to do this.
❒ Ye is an old form and is now used chiefly in :—
(i) Poetry Ye, Hills and Dales.
(ii) Some familiar phrases How d'ye do ? (POD).
❒❒ Uses of "It" : It is used —
(a) For lower animals, unless we clearly wish to refer to them as male or female: The dog follows its master.
(b) For little children, male or female The child (or baby, or infant) is crying for its mother.
(c) As the preparatory or provisional subject to refer to an infinitive or a clause after it ( infinitive clause): It is good to swim. It is known that he is dead.
(d) For an inanimate object, clause or phrase, or the idea contained in it: Buy the book and give it to him. Honesty is the best policy, he knows it. To swim is good; it improves health.
(e) As the provisional object for an object to come after: I consider it wrong to do so. I consider it wrong that you should behave in this way.
(f) To emphasise a word or a phrase:
It is you.
(It was they) that did it.
It was with difficulty that I did it.
(g) Impersonally, as the subject of impersonal verbs: It rains.
(h) As the subject of the verb "to be" to refer to time, weather, etc..
It (=the time) is 5 o'clock now.
It (=the weather) is hot today.
It (=the distance) is six miles from here.
(i) As a sort of Congnate Object: I shall fight it (the fight) out to the last.
❒❒ Arbitrary use of "It"— It may be applied to all numbers, genders, and persons when it is used at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis: It was I (or you, or she, or he, or they) that did it. It was these books that I wanted.
❒ The words this, that, these, those, such, so, the same, one, when used alone, are Demonstrative Pronouns; when used with nouns, they are Adjectives. (So cannot be used as an adjective):
This (or That) is my house
What I mean is this.
Such (=what was suggested) was not my object.
❒ The uses of this and that as Pronouns :
(a) When two nouns have been mentioned before, this refers to the latter, and that to the former :
"Work and play are both necessary; this (=play) gives us rest, and that (work) gives energy." "Dogs are more faithful than cats: these (=cats) attach themselves to places, and those (=dogs) to persons."
(b) They are often used for preceding nouns or clauses :
This book is better than that (=book) of Jadu.
I have read Latin, and that (I have read Latin) at Oxford.
He went there, and this (=the fact that he went there) proves his courage.
❒ Such as a Demonstrative Pronoun stands for a noun or phrase; it may be used for either number: If you are my friend (or friends), show yourself (or yourselves) as such.
❒ The same is a Demonstrative Pronoun in "I will do the same as you (that which you do)."
❒ So is a Demonstrative Pronoun after say, think, tell etc.; as, "I said or think so" where so=this or that.
In "I was talking to so & so"; "We walked a mile or so" (=about that distance,) so is an Indefinite Demonstrative.
❒ One and its plural Ones are Demonstrative Pronouns when they stand for preceding nouns:
He got a prize last year, but did not get one (a prize) this year.
These oranges are not ripe; please send me some ripe ones (orange).
❒ The principal Relative Pronouns are who, which, that, what; as and but are also used as Relatives.
NOTE: As a Relative Pronoun joins sentences like a conjunction, it is also called a Conjunctive Pronoun.
❒ The word to which the Relative Pronoun refers is called the Antecedent. In "The book which you gave me is lost", "I want the boy that did it", book and boy are antecedents, of which and that respectively.
(a) Who refers only to persons I know the man who came.
(b) Which refers only to things, animals, and babies.
This is the book which he bought.
This is the dog which I saw.
The baby which was crying is now quiet.
Which is also used for a preceding clause: He passed the exam nation, which (=the fact that he passed) pleased everybody.
(c) That refers to persons, animals and things: This is the man or dog or book that I saw.
(d) What refers only to things. There is a great difference of opinion about its proper nature.
(i) According to some, its antecedent that is almost always understood :
I know (that) what you say.
(That) what you say is true.
(ii) Some call it a Compound Relative, because the antecedent is said to be contained in it, the word being equivalent to that which, "But this not correct, for the antecedent is sometimes expressed, either (a) in a subsequent clause, or (b) immediately after the relative itself:—
What I tell you in darkness, that speak ye in the light. Take what help you can get." — Nesfield.
❒❒ Declension :— Who and which are declined as follows; that is not declined.
NOTE: "Whose" as the possessive of "which" is often not only convenient but also desirable. Fowler characterises the rigid adherence to of which as pedantic. "Thus, 'He was convicted in a court, of whose rules of procedure he was ignorant' is better than .. in a court, of the rules of procedure of which he was ignorant."
❒ Compound or Generalizing relatives:— whoever, whatever, whichever, and the more emphatic forms whosoever, whatsoever, give the meaning of totality :
Whoever (=anybody who) comes is welcome.
He got whatever (=anything that) he wanted.
Take whichever (=any which) you please.
(a) Restrictive — Who and which have a restrictive force when they limit or define the meaning of the antecedent: This is the boy who did it. This is the book which I bought.
(b) Continuative, Co-ordinate or Conjunctive — Who and which have sometimes a continuative force and are used only to make some additional statement about the antecedent. They may then be replaced by a conjunction and a pronoun:
You must obey your parents, which (=and this) will win you the love of others.
I saw your father, who (=and he) recognised me.
NOTE:
(a) No 'comma' is generally placed before the Relative Pronoun when it is used in the restrictive sense; but when it is used in the continuative sense, it generally takes a comma before it.
(b) Another distinction is that who and which in the latter may be replaced by a conjunction and a pronoun (as in examples above).
(c) Who and which are also used adverbially to imply a cause or a purpose:
Cause— Dutt, who ( because he) had been found guilty, was fined. The picture, which (because it) was spoiled, has been thrown away.
Purpose — I shall send my brother who will (that he may) do the work.
He has sent me a dog which will ( that it may) guard my house.
❒ That is always used in a restrictive sense. It is used instead of "who" and "which":—
(i) After Adjectives in the superlative degree:— He is the best man that I ever saw.
(ii) After same, any, all, only, one, etc. that require a defining clause after them:—
Is this the same that (also, as) you showed me before? (Pocket Oxford).
All that I want is this.
He is the only boy that did it.
Answer any that you can.
(iii) After the Interrogatives who and what:—
Who is the boy that did it?
What is it that you want?
(iv) After two antecedents, one requiring who and the other which:— Many are the men and countries that I saw.
❒ And which, but which:— As the Relative itself is like a conjunction, it is wrong to use and or but before which except to join two clauses adjectival to the same antecedent :
I have seen the picture, which you have painted and which is very lifelike.
I went to his house, which is far away from the town but which can be reached easily by motor car.
But it is wrong to write :
He asked me to go there, but which I refused.
There was a shower of rain, and which confined us indoors.
❒ As is a Relative Pronoun when it comes after the same, such, as much, as many, and is applied to both persons and things:
This is the same book as that.
Only such boys as have passed need apply.
I gave him as much (or, as many) as he required.
NOTE: As is not always a Relative Pronoun whenever it comes after another as. Thus, in 'Come as soon as you can,' 'I shall work as hard as possible', the second as is a Conjunctive Adverb.
❒ As is sometimes used independently as a Relative Pronoun for an unexpressed Antecedent to be gathered from the main sentence:
This is true, as (=a thing which) I said before.
Mr Bose, as (=which fact) is well-known, is a rich man.
❒ The same is also followed by that:—
This is the same book that I lost.
NOTE: Rules for the use of "that" or "as" after "the same":—
(a) Where the verb is expressed after it, we may use both as and that :
This is the same book as (or, that) I lost.
[ But A.B.C. of English Usage condemns the use of that after same even in such case, and asserts that same should always be followed by as. ]
(b) But when the verb is understood, we always use as:— This is the same book as mine.
NOTE: The use of who or which after same and such is coming into vogue but it is better for students to avoid it.
❒ But is used as a Relative Pronoun when it means that not. As it has a negative sense, and is used after a negative word, it is sometimes called a Negative Relative: There is no man but (who not) wishes to be happy.
❒ Relative Pronouns agree in number, gender, and person with their antecedents.
I who am your master say so.
You are the person (or persons) who is (or are) guilty.
This is the lady that lost her ring.
It is useless to me who am ill.
The Relative Pronoun is often omitted when it is the object of a verb or of a preposition:
He is the man (whom) I saw.
The book (which or that) I bought is lost.
I know the day (on which) he came.
❒ A noun or pronoun in the Possessive Case should not be used as the antecedent to a Relative Pronoun:
Thus, instead of writing, "I went to the man's house who is my friend," we should write, "I went to the house of the man who is my friend."
❒ Interrogative Pronouns who, which, what with whose and whom, ask question:—
Who are you? Whom do you want? What do you want? Which is the house?
They are also used to ask indirect questions: Tell me what you were. I asked who he was.
❒❒ Difference in use :
(a) Who is applied to persons, and is indefinite: Who goes there (i.e., the person is not known) ?
(b) Which is applied to both persons and things, and refers to one out of a group: Which of these do you want?
(c) What is applied to things, and a person's profession: What do you want? What is he ? —He is a doctor.
❒ Note carefully the following distinctions:
Who is he ? — enquires about the name or parentage the person.
The answer should be of the form — He is Sri Ramesh Chandra Bose; or He is Ramesh, my son ; or He is Ramesh, of whom I spoke to you.
What is be ? — enquires about the profession or social status. The answer should be of the form — He is a merchant or a teacher.
Which is he ? — wants him to be pointed out from a definite group?
The answer should be of the form—He is the man on the extreme right, or with a black shirt on, etc.
❒ The Interrogative what is often used in exclamation in the sense of 'how great': What folly! What a clever boy you are.
❒ What not is placed after an enumeration, almost in the sense of 'etc.
He took with him books, paper, scissors, and what not (=what else did he not take ?), — Rowe and Webb.
❒ Each, either and neither are called Distributive Pronouns because they separate one person or thing from a group.
❒ Either and neither are always used of two persons or things.
Either means (i) each of two: Either will do.
(ii) One or other of two: Either of you may go.
Neither = not either: Neither of them was present.
[Note: "The sense each of the two, as in the room has a fireplace at either end, is archaic, and should be avoided except in verse or in special contexts" – MEU.
But Sir Ernest Gowers writes in The Complete Plain Words, "Its use in the sense of each of two.... is common, and there does not seem to be any ground for Fowler's dictum."]
❒ (a) Each is used of any number, say, two or fifty: Each of the two or ten boys was fined.
❒ (b) Each is always singular if it has no antecedent: Each has his own ideas.
❒ (c) When the antecedent is plural, each also is plural: The boys each have done their works; we each (they each) have done our (have done their) works. — F. T. Wood.
❒❒ Distributive Pronouns take singular pronouns and verbs:
Neither of them is ill.
Each of the girls has done her work.
❒ Reflexive and Emphatic Pronouns are formed by adding -self to my, your, him, her, it, and -selves to our, your, them-myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
❒ Though the same in form they are different in use :
(i) They are Reflexive when the doer is both the subject and the object of the action expressed by the verb:
I hurt myself.
He lost himself.
They hurt themselves.
(ii) They are Emphatic when used with nouns or pronouns for the sake of emphasis: "I myself saw the man," and "I saw the man himself" are more emphatic than "I saw the man."
(iii) Sometimes the Emphatic Pronoun is separated from the preceding noun or pronoun: I did it for myself.
NOTE: Emphatic Pronouns can never stand alone as subjects. Hence it is incorrect to write "His brother and myself were present." "Myself will do it." But we can write, "His brother and I myself went there." "I myself will do it."
An Emphatic Pronoun is generally (except when separated, as stated above) in apposition with another word.
myself and himself are in apposition with I and man respectively.
A Reflexive Pronoun never stands in this relation; it refers to the subject, but is never itself in the nomi native case.
❒ Indefinite Pronouns do not point out any particular person or thing like the Demonstrative, but refer to persons or things in a general manner.
They are any, one, none, naught, other, another, several, many, few, all, some, they.
NOTE: (a) Most of these are also used as Adjectives:—
Any man can do it.
Some men came to me.
I saw another boy.
❒ One, body, and thing are sometimes compounded with Indefinite Pro nouns, which are then called Compound Indefinite Pronouns: anyone, nothing, any thing, anybody, etc. In any one, any is an adjective, and one is the numeral Any one of them will do.
❒ Any, as a Pronoun, is used only in interrogative and negative sentences. It may be both singular and plural and may refer to both persons and things.
Have you seen any man (or men), or dog (or dogs) there? No, I have not seen any. I want a few chairs; can you give me any?
❒ Some, as a Pronoun, is plural, and may be used for both persons and things:
Some say, he will come.
He has many books; some are new; some old.
❒ One — As an Indefinite Personal Pronoun, one is always followed by one, one's and one (in the nominative, possessive, and objective), and not by he, his, and him. Thus:
One must do one's duty. One does not know when one will die.
NOTE: When every or no stands before one, use he, his or him after it. Everyone did his duty. No one knows when he will die.
❒❒ None—"It is a mistake to suppose that the pronoun is singular only and must at all costs be followed by singular verbs, etc; the Oxford Dictionary explicitly states that plural construction is commoner."—MEU.
"None of them is or are, according to sense. ... None of this concerns me. None but fools have ever believed it." – (COD).
❒ Others — always refers to persons, and not things. In the latter case, other things or etc. is used. Thus we say, "Dutt, Bose, Patel and others were present"; but we cannot say, "Idleness, luxury, extravagance and others were his ruin."
It can, however, be used of things, only when the things already mentioned have been specially defined. The mangoes that you gave me and others (other mangoes) also are exhausted.
❒ They is used indefinitely in the sense of people generally : They (people in general) say a war will break out.
❒ Many and few are sometimes used as substantive pro nouns: Many are called, but few are chosen.
❒ Each other is generally used when two are referred to, one another when more than two are referred to:
Dutt and Sharma struck each other.
The boys fought with one another.
But "this differentiation is neither of present utility nor based on historical usage." – MEU.
In fact this distinction is not observed even by the best writers.
