COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

There are three degrees the positive, the comparative, the superlative.

The positive is the simple form of the adjective: 'a strong man.
The comparative indicates that the quality is found in the person or thing described in a higher degree than in some other person or thing: 'the stronger of the two men.' 'This tree is taller than that.'
The superlative is relatively the highest degree and often indicates that the quality is found in the highest degree in the person or thing described: 'Mt. Everest is the highest moun tain in the world.'

Often, however, the superlative is used in a relative sense, indicating that of the persons or things compared a certain person or thing possesses the quality in the highest degree, which need not be a very high or the highest degree in general. 'John is the strongest of these boys, but there are others in the school stronger than he.'

In general, comparison is characteristic of descriptive adjectives, the comparative and the superlative indicating different degrees of a quality. But a number of limiting adjectives are compared. Here the comparative and the superlative do not indicate different degrees, but point out different individuals: the former; the latter; the first; the last; the topmost round; the southernmost island of the group.

In the following discussion of comparison, descriptive and limiting adjectives are, for convenience, treated together.

A. Relative Comparison.

In contrast to the older uniform use of endings to construct the comparative and the superlative, we today with some adjectives employ the old terminational, or synthetic, form in -er and -est; with others, influenced by our fondness for analytic form, we prefer comparison with more and most; with others we fluctuate between the old terminational, or synthetic, form and the new analytic form. The wide use of the analytic form with more and most in modern English is explained not only by its expressiveness, but also by its agreeableness of sound and its ease of pronunciation in the case of long adjectives.

Monosyllabics and a large number of dissyllabics are compared by means of the comparative ending-er and the superlative ending -est: quick, quicker, quickest; sturdy, sturdier, sturdiest.

Before adding the comparative or superlative ending:

(1). Drop e: large, larger, largest.
(2). Change y to i if a consonant precedes, but retain the y if a vowel precedes: lazy, lazier, laziest; dry, drier, driest; but gray, grayer, grayest.
In British English, however, sly and usually shy retain the y although a consonant precedes: sly, slyer, slyest; shy, shyer, shyest. In America the forms-ier, -iest, are the usual ones: sly, slier, sliest; shy, shier, shiest.
(3). In mono syllabic words double the final consonant after a short vowel: hot, hotter, hottest. The British scholar Alfred West on page 114 of his English Grammar remarks, 'A few other adjectives, not mono syllabic, exhibit the same orthographical change: crueller, hope fuller. In American usage the l here is not doubled, as it stands in an unaccented syllable: crueler, hopefuler. Americans prefer here, however, the analytic forms with more and most: more cruel, most cruel, etc.

While we may thus compare with -er and -est a number of dis syllabics, especially those in -er, -le, y, -ly, ow, -some, such as tender, bitter, clever, sober, able, noble, idle, holy, goodly, narrow, handsome, wholesome, winsome, and some words accented upon the last syllable, such as profound, remote, etc., and also others that cannot be easily described, such as pleasant, cruel, quiet, etc., or in these same words and many others may use both the old form in -er and -est and the newer analytic form with more and most, as in pleasanter or more pleasant, crueler or more cruel, serener or more serene, in many others we usually prefer comparison by means of more and most, as in the case of earnest, eager, proper, famous, comic, docile, fertile, hostile, certain, active, content, abject, adverse, and participles in -ed and -ing and adjectives in ful and -ish, as learned, strained, charming, useful, childish, etc.

A few monosyllabics, like, real, right, wrong, and wan, which do not naturally incline to comparison, are usually compared by more and most when they are compared, although the terminational form occasionally occurs; in the case of like, however, only in older English, and sometimes still in poetry and dialect, never in colloquial or literary prose: 'I'm liker (now usually more like) what I was than you to him' (Dryden, All for Love, I, 247, A.D. 1678).

'Father is more like himself today.' 'The figures of Spartacus, Montrose, Garibaldi, Hampden, and John Nicholson were more real to him than the people among whom he lived' (Galsworthy, Freelands, Ch. X). 'It is wrong to even think it; it is more wrong to do it.'

Monosyllabic adjectives, however, are often compared by more when the adjective is placed after the noun to give it more emphasis and at the same time impart descriptive force. With classifying force 'There never was a kinder and juster man,' but with descriptive force 'There never was a man more kind and júst.'

In ordinary literary language, words of more than two syllables are seldom compared otherwise than by more and most beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful.

a. Irregular Comparison:

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In older English, mo or moe (Old English ma) was used instead of more when the reference was to number: 'Send out moe horses' (Shakespeare, Macbeth, V, III, 34).

In a few cases the variant forms indicate a differentiation of meaning or function. The usual comparative and superlative of old are older, oldest, always so in the predicate relation; but we may use elder, eldest, in the attributive and the substantive relation and elder as a noun, especially of relationship and rank: the elder brother; the elder Pitt; I am the elder; He is my elder in service; the eldest brother, etc. 'He is an elder in the church.'

We use farther and further with the same local and temporal meaning, but further has also the meanings additional, more ex tended, more: 'The cabin stands on the farther (or further) side of the brook.' 'I shall be back in three days at the farthest,' or at the furthest. But: further details; without further delay. After a further search I found her.' 'Have you anything further (= more) to say?' In adverbial function farther and further are used indiscriminately: 'You may go farther (or further) and fare worse.' There is, however, a decided tendency to employ further to express the idea of additional, more extended action: 'I shall be glad to discuss the matter further with you.'

Later and latter are now clearly differentiated in meaning. The terminations in some of these forms, as lesser, innermost, etc., express the degree two or three times instead of once.

aa. OLDER COMPARISON, PLEONASM, EXCESS OF EXPRESSION.

In older English, old was not the only adjective that might have a change of vowel in the comparative and superlative. Once this change, called mutation, was with certain words the rule. Later, the tendency toward uniformity brought the vowel of the positive into the comparative and superlative. In the early part of the sixteenth century there are still two adjectives which have mutation, but alongside of the old mutated form is the new unmutated, both forms with exactly the same meaning: long, lenger or longer, lengest or longest; old, elder or older, eldest or oldest. Toward the close of the century the old mutated form of long disappeared, while old kept both forms but now with differentiated meaning, as described in the second paragraph on this page.

In older English, the comparative and superlative were formed by means of suffixes, not only in the case of monosyllabics but also in the case of longer adjectives, often where it is not now usual: 'Nothing certainer" (Shakespeare, Much Ado about Nothing, V, IV, 62); 'one of the beautifullest men in the world' (Thomas Fuller, The Holy State and the Profane State, V, II, 362, A.D. 1642). Long terminational comparatives and superlatives can still be heard in popular speech, which here preserves older usage: beautifuler, beautifulest, etc. This older usage still occurs also in emphatic and excited colloquial speech, especially in the attributive relation: 'The machine was perfect as a watch when we took her apart the other day; but when she goes together again the 15th of January, we expect her to be pérfecter than a watch' (Mark Twain, Letter to Joseph T. Goodman, Nov. 29, 1889). There was no cráftier or crookeder díréctor in the habit able world' (Sinclair Lewis, Arrowsmith, Ch. XXX, IV). Joe Twichel was the delightedest old bóy I ever saw when he read the words you had written in that book' (Mark Twain, Letter to W. D. Howells, Dec. 18, 1874). 'Our baby is the bléssedest little bundle of súnshine Heaven ever sent into this world.' 'It is the stúpidest nónsense!' The analytic forms with more and most began to appear in the thirteenth century in connection with participles, where they are still the most thoroughly established. This tendency to place the comparative and superlative of an adverb before a participle had already begun in Old English, where the forms swipor and swipost were used, which were replaced by more and most in the thirteenth century. The participles as verbal forms could take adverbs before them just as finite verbs do. The adverbs more and most were often retained when the participles were used as adjectives, since more and most as common adverbs had more concrete force than the endings -er and -est. This new usage spread to adjectives. It was and still is absolutely necessary in the case of nouns, adverbs, and prepositional phrases used as adjectives, as in 'He was more knave than fool' and 'I was more in doubt about it than any of them.' The general develop ment in the direction of more and most was facilitated by the strong English trend toward analytic forms and was also furthered by French influence.

The new analytic forms at first gained ground only slowly, not becoming common until the sixteenth century, then gradually establishing them selves in the literary language alongside of the terminational forms, as we find them today.

The new analytic forms occur also in popular speech, but for the most part only pleonastically alongside of the usual terminational forms: a more abler man; the most carelessest man. Such double forms were once in use in the literary language: 'we will grace his heels With the most boldest and best hearts of Rome' (Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, III, 1, 120). In older literary English, we often find double comparison in worser, which still survives in popular speech. Double comparison still survives in the literary language in lesser, which replaces less in attributive and substantive function in certain expressions, especially with reference to concrete things: in lesser things; the lesser grammarians; the lesser of two evils; but less with more abstract reference, as in less degree; at a less depth; also to express amount and quantity, and in adverbial use, as in 'He has less money than I' and 'He works less than I.'

We no longer feel the double comparison in near (comparative of nigh, but now felt as a positive with regular comparison, near, nearer, nearest) and adjectives in most (now confounded with most, but in older English with the formmest, which consists of the two superlative suffixes, -m and -est), as in foremost, hindmost, inmost, utmost. From the superlative foremost the comparative former has been formed. In aftermost, hinder most, innermost, nethermost, outermost, uppermost, uttermost, we have a comparative + the two superlative suffixes -m and -est. While we today in general avoid pleonastic comparison, we do not feel such forms as more perfect, most perfect, deader, deadest, more unique, etc., as pleonastic, since we have in mind degrees of approach to something perfect, dead, or unique. Somewhat similar to the pleonasm of older English was its excess of expression in using the superlative with reference to two, which still survives in popular and colloquial speech, as in the smallest of the two.' Sometimes in the literary language: 'They (i.e. the two squirrels) seemed to vie with one another who should be most bold' (Thoreau, Journal, XIII, p. 189).

bb. BLENDING OF SUPERLATIVE AND COMPARATIVE.

In comparisons where there is present the idea of a group or class, the superlative represents the group as complete, while the comparative represents the separation of one or more from all the others in the group. Hence we should say: 'His versification is by far the most perfect of all English poets,' or more perfect than that of any other English poet, but we should not blend the two forms, as in the most perfect of any English poet or the most perfect of all other English poets.

b. Advantages of the Analytic Forms.

It should be noticed that in the old terminational form the sign of the degree is intimately associated with the stem, so that it is a mere suffix and can never be stressed. On the other hand, in the analytic form the sign of degree, more or most, is still an independent word and is often stressed. There are here two parts, one indicating the degree, the other the meaning. We here are fond of using the analytic form, since by means of it we can better shade our thought. We stress the adjective when we desire to emphasize the meaning, but stress the more or most when we desire to emphasize the idea of degree: 'She is more beautiful than her sister,' but 'She is indeed béautiful, but her sister is still móre beautiful.' 'Of the sisters Mary is the most beautiful and Jane the most belóved,' but 'The sisters are all béautiful, but Mary is by far the móst beautiful.'

c. Use of the 'One'-Form in Different Degrees and Different Functions.

The different degrees have different forms when used substantively, the form with one being for the most part required in the positive but often felt as unnecessary in the comparative and superlative. The comparative and the superlative of descriptive adjectives frequently do not need one, since in connection with the definite article, the degree ending, and the context they become in large measure limiting adjectives; i.e. they do not describe persons and things but point them out and thus mark them so clearly as definite individuals that one is not necessary to indicate the grammatical relation: 'Which of the two brothers did it? ''The younger' or 'The younger one.' But in the younger of the two brothers,' 'the youngest of the brothers,' one is not usually felt as necessary. One, however, is now, in contrast to older usage, felt by most people as indispensable after the indefinite article, since the reference is not clear and definite: 'This cord will not do; I need a stronger one.' 'I am not looking for a room today. I have just found a most comfortable one.'

There is also a difference of usage in different functions: 'This cord is strong' (predicate adjective) or a strong one (used substantively). This cord is stronger' (predicate adjective), or in substantive use the stronger or the stronger one, but always a stronger one. This cord is strongest (predicate adjective) at this point,' but in substantive use 'This cord is the strongest,' or the strongest one. The lake is deepest (predicate adjective) at this point,' but in substantive use 'Of these lakes this one is the deepest,' or 'This lake is the deepest one,' or simply the deepest. The pure predicate superlative represents the highest degree attained by a person or a thing as compared with himself or itself at different times, places, or under different circumstances: "The storm was most violent towards morning.' 'The lake is deepest here.' 'He is happiest when left alone. There is usually no the here before the superlative, but it is now creeping in, as explained in d below.

d. Predicate Superlative in Form of Adverbial Accusative or Prepositional Phrase.

Instead of the pure predicate adjective superlative, we sometimes employ in the predicate relation the adverbial accusative of a noun made from the adjective superlative by placing the definite article the before it: 'I doubt whether the actions of which we are the very proudest will not surprise us, when we trace them, as we shall one day, to their source' (Thackeray, Pendennis, Ch. XXXI), instead of indeed proudest. The rooks settle where the trees are the finest' (Lytton, My Novel, I, Ch. V), instead of finest. 'Of these specimens my friend is naturally the most proud' (J. Conrad, A Set of Six), instead of most proud. It was, perhaps, at this time that Mrs. Henry and I were the most uneasy' (R. L. Stevenson), instead of most uneasy. This superlative is always used when it is modified by a restrictive relative clause: 'On that day she looked the happiest that I had ever seen her,' or often with suppressed relative pro noun: 'Louise was sitting in a deep chair, looking the happiest [that] I had ever seen her' (Mary Roberts Rinehart, The Circular Staircase, Ch. XXXIV). 'On that day she looked the most beautiful that I had ever seen her.'  The adverbial accusative is sometimes used with verbs as the superlative of the adverb, hence it is used also here in the predicate, just as adverbs in general are often used in the predicate with adjective force.

In the predicate instead of the simple superlative without the or the adverbial accusative of the superlative with the, we may use also a prepositional phrase composed of at and the superlative modified by a possessive adjective: 'The steps are at their steepest (or steepest, or the steepest) just here' (F. M. Peard, Madame's Granddaughter, p. 74). She knew that she looked at her best in this attire' (C. Garvice, Staunch as a Woman, p. 83). Similarly, as objective predicate: 'She first saw the hill at its gayest when that brief, brilliant hour before autumn bedecked Cosdon' (Phillpotts, The Beacon, I, Ch. VI). In "Doctor Dick" we have the author at his most useful' (Literary World, Apr. 19, 1895, p. 362). Sometimes the takes the place of a possessive here: 'It was now sunset the throng at the fullest' (Lytton, What Will He Do with It? I, Ch. I).

e. Two Qualities of One Person or Thing Compared.

In com paring two qualities of one person or thing we usually employ more: 'She is more proud than vain. 'He is more shy than un social. However, in the case of a few monosyllabics, long, wide, thick, high, we still regularly employ the old simple comparative, usually with full clause form in the subordinate clause: "The wall was in some places thicker than it was high.'

f. Comparative of Gradation.

To indicate that the quality in creases or decreases at a fairly even rate we place ever before the comparative, or we repeat it: 'The road got ever worse (or worse and worse) until there was none at all.'

g. Comparison of Other Parts of Speech Used as Adjectives.

Here we usually employ more and most: 'John is more in debt than I am.' 'She is more mother than wife.' 'Though the youngest among them, she was more woman than they.' Where we feel a comparative more as a pronoun than as an adjective we say: 'Charles was more of a gentleman than a king, and more of a wit than a gentleman.' 'Smith is more of a teacher than his brother.'

h. Comparative of Limiting Adjectives Not Used in Predicate.

The comparative of limiting adjectives, inner, outer, former, latter, etc., cannot be used as a predicate followed by than, since, limiting adjectives do not indicate degrees, but merely point out individuals. The comparative older can, as a descriptive adjective, be used as a predicate; but elder cannot be so used, for it is a limiting adjective: 'He is older (not elder) than I,' but 'This is the elder brother.'

i. Comparison of Compounds.

We compare the first element of a compound where this is possible, usually employing the terminational form, but if the first element is a word that does not ad mit of this form we use more or most: 'the biggest-chested and longest-armed man I ever saw,' but 'This is the most up-to-date book I know. Even if the first element admits of the terminational form, we employ more or most if the first element has fused with the other component so closely that it is not felt as a separate ele ment with a separate function: well-known; better-known; but the more well-to-do tradesmen.'

Of course, we compare the last component if it contains the element capable of comparison, usually employing the form we should use if it were an independent word: bloodthirstier, blood thirstiest; praiseworthiest, or most praiseworthy; etc.

B. Absolute Comparison:

a. Absolute Superlative.

In all the preceding examples the degrees express superiority in a relative sense, some person or thing excelling all the members of a definite group in the possession of a certain quality, while in fact the higher or highest degree here may be a comparatively low degree: 'John is the taller of the two, the tallest of them all, but he is notwithstanding quite small.' We may in the case of the superlative, quite commonly, express superiority in an absolute sense, indicating a very high degree in and of itself, not necessarily, however, the very highest.

In lively style, we here often place unstressed most before the stressed positive of the adjective or participle: (relative superlative) 'It is the most lovely flower in the garden,' but in an absolute sense: 'He has the most beautiful of gardens.' 'Everything about the place tells of the most dáinty order, the most éxquisite cleanliness' (Mrs. Gaskell, Life of Charlotte Brontë, Ch. I). 'It was a most magnificent exhibition of courage.' 'We shall soon see George and his most beautiful wife.' 'Most lovely flowers everywhere greet the eye and most frágrant perfumes fill the air.' We can distinguish only by the stress 'Most réputable (absolute superlative) writers have now abandoned this claim' from 'Móst ( the great majority of) reputable writers have abandoned this claim.'

Instead of the usual absolute superlative with most, we some times in the case of adjectives which admit of the terminational form employ the simple superlative, often drawling it out and stressing it: 'Oh, he made the rú-dest remark!' 'The letter did not meet with the warmest reception.' 'Thus he was perfectly rational, though when others beheld him he appeared the insánest of mortals (Meredith, Amazing Marriage, Ch. VI). 'I'm in the best of health.' 'She is in the best of company.' 'At all times her dress was of the poorest.' 'Humphrey's ideas of time were always of the váguest order' (Florence Montgomery, Misunderstood, Ch. III). 'The letter was written in the kindest terms.' Besides such expressions we find this form sometimes, especially in our own time, when the superlative is modified by a limiting adjective, my, any, every, each, no, some, certain, etc., or, on the other hand, sometimes when it is entirely unmodified, especially in the case of abstract and plural nouns: 'my déarest darling'; 'any pláinest man who reads this' (Trollope, Framley Parsonage, Ch. XIV); 'so completely did it fulfil every fáintest hope'; 'there is no smállest doubt.' 'It was perhaps on some dárkest, múddiest afternoon of a London February' (Times Literary Supplement, June 9, 1918). 'A stronger lens reveals to you certain tiniest hairlets, which make vortices for these victims' (George Eliot, Middlemarch, I, Ch. VI). 'Michael and Guy left Oxford in the mellow time of an afternoon in éarliest August' (Compton Mackenzie, Sinister Street, p. 760). 'I owed her déepest gratitude' (Elinor Glyn, Reflections of Ambrosine, III, Ch. V). 'Our friendship ripened into closest intimacy.' 'From éarliest times.'

The most common way to express the absolute superlative is to place before the positive of the adjective a simple adverb, such as very, exceedingly, highly, absolutely, etc., or in colloquial speech awfully, dreadfully, terribly, beastly, etc., sometimes without the suffix -ly, as in the case of awful, even regularly so in the case of real (widely used in America), mighty, jolly (British colloquial for very), devilish, damned, bloody (British), bally (British), etc.: very cold weather; an exceedingly intricate problem; a highly polished society. 'I am awfully (sometimes awful) glad.' 'It's real cold. I'm jolly glad anyhow.' 'It's damned hot. Also only too, simply too, just too, and just are so used: 'I shall be ónly tóo glád if you accept my invitation.' 'It's simply too bád of him!' 'It's just tóo áwful! It's just spléndid!' In older English, pure was used with the meaning of absolutely: 'It is pure easy to follow god and serue hym in tyme of tranquylite' (Caxton, Chast. Goddes Chyld, 89, A.D. 1491). This usage is preserved in certain American dialects: 'Dey hides is pure tough' (Julia Peterkin, Scarlet Sister Mary).

b. Absolute Comparative.

The absolute comparative is not as common as the absolute superlative: the lower classes; the higher classes; higher education; a better-class café; the more complex problems of life; 'the mist, like a fleecy coverlet, hiding every harsher outline' (H. Sutcliffe, Pam the Fiddler, Ch. I).

We usually place here before the positive of the adjective a simple adverb, such as tolerably, fairly, rather, etc.: a tolerably (or fairly, or rather) long walk; somewhat talkative; etc.

c. Comparison to Denote Degrees of Inferiority.

Here we uniformly employ less and least: wise, less wise, least wise.