Glossary of
grammatical terms
abstract noun a noun used to describe a
quality, idea, or experience rather
than something physical or concrete; e.g.
joy, size, language. Compare with concrete
noun.
active used for describing verb phrases such as gives,
and has made, where the
subject is the person or thing doing the action or responsible for the action.
Compare with passive.
adjectival clause another name for relative clause.
adjective a word used to tell you more about a thing, such
as its appearance, colour, size, or
other qualities; e.g. …a pretty
blue dress.
adverb a
word that gives more information about when, how, where, or in what circumstances something happens; e.g. quickly, now. There
are several different kinds of adverb; adverbs of degree, manner, place, time, duration,
and frequency. There are also focusing
adverbs.
adverbial a word or combination of
words added to a clause to give more
information about time, place, or manner. See also sentence adverbial and sentence connector.
adverb of degree an adverb indicating the amount or extent of a feeling or quality; e.g. extremely.
adverb/adverbial of duration an adverb or adverbial
indicating how long something lasts;
e.g. briefly, for a long time.
adverb/adverbial of frequency an adverb or adverbial indicating how often something happens; e.g. often, once a week.
adverb of manner an adverb indicating the way
in which something happens or is
done; e.g. carefully.
adverb of place an adverb that gives more
information about position or
direction; e.g. Move closer.
adverb particle an adverb used as part of a phrasal verb; e.g. hide out, sit up, turn round.
affirmative
not containing a negative
word. Also called positive.
agent another name for performer.
agreement the relationship between a subject and its verb, or between a number or determiner and its noun; e.g. I look/she looks… one bell/three
bells. Also called concord.
apostrophe s an ending (’s) added to a noun to mark possession; e.g. … Harriet’s daughter… the
professor’s husband… the
Managing Director’s secretary.
article see
definite article, indefinite article.
aspect the use of verb forms to show whether an action
is continuing, repeated, or
finished.
attributive used for describing the position of adjectives
when they are used in front of a
noun. Compare with predicative.
auxiliary verb one of the verbs be,
have, and do when they are used with
a main verb to make verb forms, negatives, questions, and so on. Also called auxiliary. Modals are also auxiliary verbs.
bare infinitive another name for infinitive without to.
base form the form of a verb that has
no letters added to the end and is not
a past form; e.g. walk, go, have,
be. The base form is the form you
look up in a dictionary.
broad negative one of a small group of
adverbs including barely and seldom which are used to make a
statement almost negative; e.g. I barely
knew her.
cardinal number a number used for counting; e.g. one, seven, nineteen. classifying adjective an adjective
used to identify something as being of
a particular type; e.g. Indian, wooden, mental. They do
not have comparatives or superlatives. Compare with qualitative adjective.
clause a group of words containing a verb. See also main clause and subordinate clause.
clause of manner a subordinate clause that
describes the way in which something
is done, usually introduced with as
or like; e.g. She talks like
her mother used to.
collective noun a noun that refers to a group of people or
things; e.g.
committee, team.
colour adjective an adjective referring to a colour; e.g.
red, blue, scarlet.
common noun a noun used to refer to a person, thing, or substance; e.g. sailor, computer, glass. Compare with proper noun.
comparative an adjective or adverb with -er
on the end or more
in front of it; e.g. friendlier, more important, more
carefully.
complement a noun phrase or adjective that comes after a linking verb such as be, and gives more information about the subject or object of the clause; e.g. She is a teacher, She is tired, They made her chairperson. complex sentence a sentence consisting of two or more main clauses linked by a subordinating conjunction; e.g. We went inside when it started to rain.
compound a combination of two or more words functioning
as a unit. For example, self-centred and free-style are compound adjectives, bus stop and state of affairs are compound nouns,
and dry-clean and roller-skate are compound verbs.
compound sentence a sentence consisting of two
or more main clauses linked by a
coordinating conjunction; e.g. They
picked her up and took her into the
house.
concessive clause a subordinate clause, usually
introduced by although or while, that contrasts with a main
clause; e.g. Although I like her, I
find her hard to talk to.
concord another name for agreement.
concrete noun a noun that refers to something we can touch or
see; e.g.
table, dress, flower. Compare with abstract
noun.
conditional clause a subordinate clause usually starting with if. The event described in the main clause
depends on the condition described in the subordinate clause; e.g. If
it rains, we’ll go to the cinema…
They would be rich if they had taken my advice.
conjunction a word linking together two clauses, phrases, or words. There are two types of conjunction – coordinating conjunctions, which link
parts of a sentence of the same grammatical type (and, but, or), and subordinating conjunctions,
which begin subordinate clauses (although, when).
continuous
another name for progressive.
contraction a shortened form in which an auxiliary verb and not, or a subject and an auxiliary verb, are
joined together and function as one word; e.g.
aren’t, she’s.
coordinate clause a clause that is connected to
another clause with a coordinating
conjunction such as and or but; e.g.
He fell and broke his leg.
coordinating conjunction a word such as and, but, or or which joins together two clauses, phrases, or words of the same grammatical
type.
copula a
name sometimes used to refer to the verb
be. In this grammar, the term linking verb is used.
countable noun a noun that can be singular
or plural; e.g. dog/dogs, lemon/lemons, foot/feet. Also called count noun.
declarative a clause in the declarative form has the subject followed by the verb. Most statements are made in
the declarative form. Also called indicative.
defining non-finite clause a participle clause that is placed after a noun phrase to identify the person or thing
you are talking about; e.g. The girl wearing the red hat.
defining relative clause a relative clause that
identifies the person or thing that
is being talked about; e.g. I wrote down
everything that she said.
definite article the determiner ‘the’.
delexical verb a verb that has very little
meaning in itself and is used with
an object that carries the main meaning of the structure. Give, have, and take are commonly used as delexical
verbs; e.g. She gave a small cry…
I’ve had a bath.
demonstrative one of the words this, that, these,
and those used in front of a noun; e.g. … this woman…
that tree. They are also used as pronouns; e.g. That looks nice… This is fun.
dependent clause another name for subordinate clause.
definite determiner one of a groups of
determiners including the,
that and your which you use
when the person you are speaking to
understands which person or
thing you are talking about; e.g. the old man, my ideas.
determiner one of a group of words including the, a, some,
and my which are used at the
beginning of a noun phrase.
direct object a noun phrase referring to a person or thing affected by an action, in a sentence with an active
verb; e.g. She wrote her name…. I shut the windows.
direct speech speech reported in the words actually spoken by
someone, without any changes in
tense, person, and so on.
ditransitive verb a verb such as give, take,
or sell which can have both an indirect and a direct object; e.g. She gave me a kiss.
dynamic verb a verb such as run, give or slice which describes an
action.
Compare with stative verb.
-ed adjective an adjective that ends in -ed, and usually has the same form
as the -ed participle of a verb, or
is formed by adding -ed to a noun; e.g. a worried look… skilled workers. Adjectives that do not end in -ed but have the same forms as irregular -ed participles are also called
-ed adjectives; e.g. a broken bone.
-ed participle a verb form such as walked
or played, which is
used to make perfect forms and passives, or in some cases an
adjective. Irregular participles such as given
and broken are also called -ed participles because they behave like
regular -ed participles. Also called past participle.
ellipsis when you leave out words because they are
obvious from the context.
emphasizing adjective an adjective such as complete, utter or
total which stresses how strongly you feel about something; e.g. I feel a complete fool.
ergative verb a verb that can be either transitive or intransitive in the same meaning. To use the verb
intransitively, you use the object of the transitive verb as the subject of the
intransitive verb; e.g. He had boiled
a kettle… The kettle had boiled.
exclamation a word or sentence spoken suddenly and loudly in order to express surprise, anger, and so on; e.g. Oh gosh!
finite a finite verb is inflected
according to person or tense rather than
being an infinitive or a participle.
first person see
person.
focusing adverb a sentence adverb that
indicates the most relevant thing
involved; e.g. only, mainly, especially.
future the use of
will or shall with the base form
of the verb to refer to future
events; e.g. She will come tomorrow.
future progressive the use of will
be or shall be and an -ing participle to refer to
future events; e.g. She will be going soon. Also called future continuous.
future perfect the use of will
have or shall have and an -ed participle to refer to
future events; e.g. I shall have finished tomorrow.
future perfect progressive the use of will or
shall with have been and an -ing participle to refer to future
events; e.g. I will have been walking
for three hours by then. Also called future perfect continuous.
gender a grammatical term referring to the difference
between masculine and feminine words
such as he and she.
generic pronoun one of a group of pronouns
including you and they which are used to refer to people in
general.
gerund another name for -ing noun.
gradable a gradable adjective can be
used with a word such as very
to say that the person or thing
referred to has more or less of a quality; e.g.
very boring, less helpful.
idiom a
group of two or more words with a meaning that cannot be understood by taking the meaning of each individual word; e.g. to kick the bucket, to run wild.
if-clause a conditional clause; or a
clause used to report a yes/no-question.
imperative a clause in the imperative has the base form of
the verb without a subject, e.g. Come
here… Take two tablets every
four hours… Enjoy yourself.
impersonal it it is an impersonal subject when it is used to introduce a fact, or when it is used in a split sentence; e.g. It’s raining… It was you who asked.
indefinite article the determiners a and an.
indefinite determiner one of a group of determiners including a, many and several which you use to refer to someone or something of a
particular type, without saying which person or thing you mean; e.g. an
old man, several suggestions.
indefinite place adverb one of a group of adverbs including anywhere and somewhere which are used to indicate position or location in a
general or vague way.
indefinite pronoun one of a group of pronouns including
someone and anything which are used to refer to a
person or thing in a general way.
indicative another name for declarative.
indirect object a second object used with a
transitive verb to indicate who or
what benefits from an action, or gets something as a result of it; e.g. She gave me a rose.
indirect question another name for reported question.
indirect speech another name for reported speech.
infinitive the base form of a verb. It is often used with to in front of it; e.g. (to) take, (to) see, (to) bring.
infinitive without to the infinitive form without to in front of it, used with modals and certain other verbs; e.g. You must go… Let me think. inflection the variation in the form of a word to show differences
in
tense, number, case, and degree.
-ing adjective an adjective that has the
same form as the -ing participle of a verb; e.g. … a smiling face… a winning streak.
-ing participle a verb form ending in -ing that
is used to make verb forms, and as an adjective. Also called the present participle.
-ing noun a noun that has the same form
as the -ing participle of a verb; e.g.
Swimming is good for you.
interjection another name for exclamation.
interrogative adverb one of the adverbs how, when, where,
and why when they are used
to ask questions.
interrogative
a clause in
the interrogative form has part or all of the verb phrase in front of the subject. Most questions are asked in
the interrogative form.
interrogative pronoun one of the pronouns who, whose, whom, what, and which when they are used to ask questions.
intransitive verb a verb that is used to talk
about an action or event that only
involves the subject and so does not have an object; e.g. She arrived… I was
yawning.
inversion changing the word order in a sentence,
especially changing the order of the
subject and the verb.
irregular not following the normal
rules for inflection. An irregular verb has
a past form and/or -ed participle
that is formed in a different way from the regular ending.
lexical verb another name for main verb.
linking verb a verb that links the subject and complement of
a clause; e.g. be, become, seem, appear. Also sometimes called
copula.
main clause a clause that is not dependent on, or is not part of, another clause.
main verb any verb that is not an auxiliary verb. Also
called lexical verb.
mass noun (in this grammar) a noun that is usually an
uncountable noun, but that can be
used as a countable noun when it refers to quantities or types of something; e.g. … two sugars… cough medicines.
measurement noun a noun that refers to a unit of size, volume, weight, speed, temperature, etc.; e.g. mile, litre, degree.
modal an auxiliary verb that is used with a main verb
to indicate a particular attitude,
such as possibility, obligation, prediction, or deduction; e.g. can, could, may, might.
Also called modal auxiliary or modal verb.
modifier a word or group of words that come in front of a noun; e.g. …a beautiful
sunny day… …a psychology
conference.
negative used for describing a sentence that uses a word like not, never, or no
one to indicate the absence or opposite of something, or to say
that something is not the case; e.g. I don’t know you… I’ll
never forget.
The opposite is affirmative.
negative word a word such as never and not
which expresses a negative meaning.
nominal relative clause a subordinate clause that
functions as a noun and often begins
with what or whatever; e.g. What he said was true. nominal that-clause a subordinate clause
that functions as a noun and
begins with that; e.g. He showed that it was
true. non-defining relative
clause a relative clause that gives more
information about someone or
something, but that is not needed to identify them; e.g. That’s Mary, who was
at university with me. Compare with defining relative clause.
non-finite the non-finite forms of a verb are the infinitive and participle forms; e.g. to take, taking, taken.
noun a word that refers to people, things, and
abstract ideas such as feelings and
qualities; e.g. woman, Harry, guilt.
noun phrase a group of words that acts as
the subject, complement, or object
of a clause, or as the object of a preposition.
noun modifier a noun used in front of another noun, as if it
were an adjective; e.g. …a car door… a steel works.
number the way in which differences
between singular and plural are shown;
e.g. flower/ flowers, that/those. See also cardinal number and ordinal number.
object a
noun phrase that refers to a person or thing, other than the subject, which is involved in or
affected by the action of a verb. See also direct
object and indirect object.
Prepositions are also followed by objects.
object complement a word that is used to
describe the object of a clause and
that occurs with verbs such as make
and find; e.g. It made me tired… I found her asleep.
ordinal number a number that is used to
indicate where something comes in an
order or sequence; e.g. first, fifth, tenth, hundredth.
participle a verb form used for making different tenses.
See -ed
participle and -ing
participle for more details.
partitive a word that gives information about the amount of a particular thing; e.g. pint, loaf, portion.
passive verb forms such as was given, were
taken, had been made, where the
subject is the person or thing that is affected by the action. Compare with active.
past form the form of a verb, often ending in -ed,
that is used for the past simple.
past participle another name for -ed participle.
past perfect the use of had
with an -ed participle to refer
to past events; e.g. She had finished.
past perfect progressive the use of
had been with an -ing
participle to refer to past
events; e.g. He had been waiting for
hours. Also called past perfect continuous.
past progressive the use of was or
were with an -ing
participle, usually to refer to
past events; e.g. They were worrying about it yesterday. Also called past continuous.
past simple the use of the past form of a verb to refer to
past events; e.g.
They waited… It fell
over.
past tense a tense used to describe actions or events that
took place in the past. See tense for more details.
perfect form a verb form with have
and an -ed participle; e.g.
I have met him… We had won.
performative verb a verb that states explicitly
what action the speaker is
performing when he or she uses it; e.g.
apologize, resign, christen.
performer the person or thing that is responsible for the action expressed by the verb; e.g. Mark
phoned … Our dinner was eaten by the dog.
person a term used to refer to the three classes of
people who are involved in something
that is said. They are the first person (the person speaking or writing), the
second person (the person being addressed), and the third person (the people or
things that are being talked about).
personal pronoun one of a group of pronouns
including I, you, and me
which are used to refer back to the people or things you are talking about.
phrasal verb a combination of a verb and an adverb and/or a preposition, which have a single
meaning; e.g. back down, hand over, look after, look forward to.
phrase a
set of words that is smaller than a clause, and that is based around a particular word class: for
example, a verb phrase is based around a main verb, and can also contain
auxiliary verbs. See also noun phrase, verb phrase and prepositional phrase.
Phrase is also sometimes used to
refer to any group of words.
plural the
form used to refer to more than one person or thing; e.g. dogs, women.
plural noun a noun that is only used in the plural form; e.g.
trousers, scissors, vermin.
possessive a structure used to show possession; e.g.
your, Jerry’s, mine.
possessive determiner a determiner such as my, your,
and their. Also called possessive adjective.
possessive pronoun one of the words mine, yours, hers, his, ours,
and theirs.
postdeterminer a small group of adjectives used after a determiner and in front of other adjectives; e.g. certain, remaining.
predeterminer a word that comes in front of a determiner; e.g. all the boys… double the trouble… such a mess.
predicative used for describing the position of adjectives when they are used after a linking verb such as ‘be’.
Compare with attributive.
preposition a word such as by, with or from, which is usually followed
by a noun phrase or an -ing form.
prepositional phrase a structure consisting of a
preposition and its object; e.g. on the table, by the sea.
present participle another name for -ing participle.
present progressive the use of the present simple
of ‘be’ with an -ing participle to refer
to present events; e.g. Things are improving. Also
present perfect the use of the present simple
of have with an -ed participle to refer to past events
that exist in the present; e.g. She has loved him for ten years.
present perfect progressive the use of
have been and has been with an -
ing participle to refer to past
events that exist in the present; e.g. We
have been sitting here for hours. Also called present perfect continuous.
present simple the use of the base form or the s
form of a verb, usually to refer
to present events; e.g. I like bananas… My sister hates
them.
present tense a tense used to describe events taking place in
the present, or situations that
exist in the present.
progressive a verb form that contains a form of the verb ‘be’ and an -ing participle; e.g. She was laughing…
They had been playing badminton.
Also called continuous.
pronoun a word used instead of a noun, when you do not want to name someone or something directly; e.g. it, you, none.
proper noun a noun that refers to a particular person,
place, or institution; e.g. Nigel, Edinburgh, Christmas.
Compare with common noun.
purpose clause a subordinate clause, usually
introduced by in order to, or so that; e.g. I came here in order
to ask you out to dinner.
qualifier any word, phrase, or clause that comes after a noun phrase, and gives extra information to expand
its meaning; e.g. …a book with a blue cover…
the shop on the corner.
qualitative adjective an adjective that is used to indicate a quality,
and is gradable; e.g. funny, intelligent, small.
Compare with classifying adjective.
quantity expression a phrase ending in of that allows you to refer to a quantity of something without being
precise about the exact amount; e.g. some
of, a lot of, a little bit of.
question a structure that typically
has the verb in front of the subject and
that is used to ask someone about something; e.g. Have you any money?
Also called interrogative.
question tag
a structure
consisting of an auxiliary verb followed by a pronoun, which is used at the end of a statement in order to form
a question.
reason clause a subordinate clause, usually introduced by because, since, or as;
e.g. Since you’re here, we’ll
start.
reciprocal pronoun the pronouns each
other and one another, used to show that two or more people do or
feel the same thing; e.g. They loved each other.
reciprocal verb a verb that describes an
action that involves people affecting
each other in the same way with the same action; e.g. They met in the
street… He met her yesterday.
reflexive pronoun a pronoun ending in -self,
such as myself or themselves,
which is used as the object of a verb when the person affected by an action is the same as the person doing it.
reflexive verb a verb that is typically used with a reflexive
pronoun; e.g.
enjoy
yourself; pride yourself on.
relative clause a subordinate clause that
gives more information about someone
or something mentioned in the main clause. See also defining relative clause and
non-defining relative clause.
relative pronoun a wh-word such as who or
which, used to introduce a relative clause; e.g. …the girl who was carrying the bag.
reported clause the part of a reporting
structure that describes what someone
has said; e.g. She said that I couldn’t see her.
reported question a question that is reported using a reporting structure rather than the exact words used by the speaker. Also
called indirect question.
reported speech speech that is reported using
a reporting structure rather than
the exact words used by the speaker. Also called indirect speech.
reporting clause a clause that contains a
reporting verb, which is used to
introduce what someone has said; e.g.
They asked if I could come.
reporting verb a verb that describes what people say or think; e.g.
suggest, say, wonder.
reporting
structure a
structure that reports what someone has said by using a reported clause rather than repeating their exact words; e.g. She
told me she’d be late.
result clause a subordinate clause introduced by
so that which gives the result
of something; e.g. The house was severely
damaged, so that it is now uninhabitable.
rhetorical question a question that you use in
order to make a comment rather than
to obtain information; e.g. Oh, isn’t it silly?
second person see
person.
semi-modal the verbs
dare, need, and used
to which behave rather like modals.
sentence a group of words that express a statement,
question, or command. A sentence
usually has a verb and a subject, and may consist of one clause, or two or more
clauses. A sentence in writing has a capital letter at the beginning and a
full-stop, question mark, or exclamation mark at the end.
sentence adverbial an adverbial that applies to the whole clause, rather than to part of it; e.g. We possibly have to wait
and see. See also sentence connector.
sentence connector a sentence adverbial used to
introduce a comment or reinforce
what is said; e.g. moreover, besides.
s form the base form of a verb with s on
the end, used in the present simple.
simple sentence a sentence that contains only one clause.
singular the form used to refer to or talk about one
person or thing; e.g.
dog, woman.
Compare with plural.
singular noun a noun typically used in the singular form; e.g.
sun, business.
split infinitive the placing of a word between to
and the base form of a verb; e.g. …to boldly go where no man has gone before.
split sentence a sentence in which emphasis
is given to either the subject or
the object by using a structure beginning with it, what, or all;
e.g. It’s a hammer we need… What
we need is a hammer.
stative verb a verb that describes a
state; e.g. be, live, know. Compare with dynamic verb.
subject a noun phrase that usually comes before a verb, and agrees with the verb in person and number. In
active sentences, the subject usually refers to the person or thing who does
the action expressed by the verb; e.g.
We were going shopping.
subjunctive a verb form that is used in some languages to express attitudes such as wishing, hoping, and
doubting. The subjunctive is not very common in English, and is used mainly in
conditional clauses such as If I were you….
submodifying adverb an adverb that is used in
front of an adjective or another
adverb in order to strengthen or weaken its meaning; e.g. …very interesting… quite quickly.
subordinate clause a clause that begins with a
subordinating conjunction such as because or while and which must be used with a main clause.
subordinating conjunction a conjunction that begins a
subordinate clause.
substitution the special use of pronouns and other words to replace part or all of a clause; e.g. ‘Are you going to the party?’ – ‘I hope so’.
superlative an adjective or adverb with -est on the end or most
in front of it; e.g. thinnest, quickest, most wisely.
tense the verb form that shows whether you are
referring to the past or the
present.
that-clause a clause starting with ‘that’ which is used mainly when reporting
what someone has said; e.g. She said that she’d wash up for me. That can be omitted when the clause is used after a reporting
verb.
third person see
person.
time adverbial an adverbial that gives more
information about when something
happens; e.g. I saw her yesterday.
time clause a subordinate clause that indicates the time of
an event; e.g.
I’ll phone
you when I get back.
title a word used before a person’s name to show their position or status;
e.g. Mrs, Lord, Queen.
to-infinitive the base form of a verb
preceded by to; e.g. to go, to have, to jump.
transitive verb a verb used to talk about an
action or event that involves more
than one person or thing, and so is followed by an object; e.g. She’s wasting her
money.
uncountable noun a noun that refers to a
general kind of thing rather than to
an individual item, and so has only one form; e.g. money, furniture, intelligence. Also called uncount
noun.
verb a word used with a subject to say what someone
or something does, or what happens
to them; e.g. sing, spill, die.
verb phrase a main verb, or a main verb preceded by one or more auxiliary verbs, which combines with a subject to say what someone
or something does, or what happens to them; e.g.
I’ll show them… She’ s been sick.
vocative a word used when speaking to someone, just as if it were their name; e.g. darling, madam.
wh-clause a clause starting with a wh-word.
whether-clause a clause used to report a yes/no-question; e.g. I asked her whether
she’d seen him.
wh-question a question that expects an
answer giving a particular person, place, thing, amount, and
so on, rather than just yes or no.
wh-word one
of a group of words starting with wh-,
such as what, when or
who, which are used in wh-questions. How is also called a wh-word
because it behaves like the other wh-words.
yes/no-question a question that can be
answered simply with either yes or no; e.g. Would you like some
more tea?