Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that connects similar
words or group of words such as phrases, clauses and sentences.
Conjunctions are
connectors that link words, phrases, clauses or sentences. There are two main
types of conjunctions: coordinating and subordinating conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions join equivalent word classes, phrases or clauses. Joined words and phrases should be of
the same class or type, and joined clauses should be main clauses.
Coordination can
take place between two or more main clauses.
E.g.
• Emily went to see a
doctor and was given two days’ medical leave but went to work anyway.
The main coordinating conjunctions are and, but and or.
Conjunctions are
useful as they help avoid unnecessary repetition of words or phrases.
E.g.
•
It is a small kitchen. It is a practical
kitchen.
→
It is a small but practical kitchen.
•
John will inform you of the results. John’s
assistant will inform you of the results.
→
John or
his assistant will inform you of the results.
•
They gave their opinions. I gave my opinions.
→
They gave their opinions and I gave mine.
Coordinating conjunctions may be used in
several ways.
The conjunction and connects words and phrases that are
linked in some way.
E.g.
•
Sam and
I will not be attending the meeting.
The conjunctions both … and are used as a pair for
emphasis.
E.g.
•
Both the girls and I were eager to participate in the competition.
The conjunctions but, though and so link words, phrases or clauses that
have contrasting meanings. In the case of clauses containing a contrasting
idea, whereas and while are used.
E.g.
•
Slowly but
surely the ancient temple was painstakingly rebuilt.
•
Jane, though
looking better, is still feeling weak after the operation.
•
Alex ate too much at the buffet lunch, so he skipped dinner.
•
Mrs Gopal is firm with her students whereas Mrs Chan tends to be more
lenient.
•
While Stanley tended the
garden, his wife baked a cake.
You use the
conjunction or to link words,
phrases or clauses that present a choice or alternative.
E.g.
•
Would you like to have dinner now or later?
•
I’ll contact you by phone or email.
The pairs either … or and neither … nor are used to lend greater emphasis to the
alternatives.
E.g.
•
Neither the boys nor Sally believes her story.
•
Either Meiling or Sharon is going to the airport today.
Cause and Effect
The coordinating
conjunctions so and therefore link a cause to its effect.
E.g.
•
He had worked hard, so his success was not unexpected.
•
They heard the announcement on the radio and therefore took another route to avoid
the traffic jam.
Unlike coordinating
conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause
to a dependent clause.
The dependent
clause cannot stand on its own and often does not make sense without the main
clause.
Most subordinating
conjunctions are single words, e.g. although,
as, because, since, when.
•
Although the
journey to the disaster site was difficult,
the volunteers want to continue to support the project.
•
Since they
refused to obey the school rules, the boys
were suspended from school for a week.
•
Sarah was waiting
for the bus to arrive when she fell.
However,
some subordinating conjunctions consist more than one word, e.g. except that, as long as, even if.
E.g.
•
Even if he gives me a lift,
I am not going to the funfair.
•
Except for Jane, all are
expected at the lunch.
•
She will be allowed to keep her pet as long as she looks after it well.
•
Even if he gives me a lift,
I am not going to the funfair.
These are some
subordinating conjunctions that convey the following ideas:
|
Cause |
: |
since, because,
so that |
|
Concession and Comparison : |
although, as
though, |
|
|
|
|
even though |
|
Condition |
: |
even if, unless |
|
Place |
: |
where, wherever |
|
Time |
: |
after, as soon as, whenever |
Correlative Conjunctions
Some conjunctions
combine with other words to form correlative
conjunctions. They appear together, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as grammatically
equal.
Some examples are both…and; not only, but also; either … or/neither … nor; whether … or.
•
Whether you
win or lose this competition is not the issue; it’s how hard you’ve tried.
Using “like” as a Conjunction.
Although like is often used as a conjunction,
this is regarded as rather informal and should be avoided in formal writing.
E.g.
•
He doesn’t go out like he used to. (informal)
•
He doesn’t go out the way he used to. (formal)
Instead of “Like I
told you yesterday, we aren’t going to the zoo today”, say “As I told you
yesterday, we aren’t going to the zoo today”.
Instead of “It
looks like it’s going to rain”, say “It looks as if it’s going to rain”.
This construction presents a choice between two
alternatives. However, the two alternatives should belong to the same word
class.
E.g.
• We can go to either Bangkok or Bali for our vacation
this year. (Both are nouns.)
•
They can eat either now or after the show. (Both
are adverbs.)
Sometimes either
is placed in an incorrect position.
E.g.
• She can take either the exam or ask to be
interviewed. (One is a noun – exam
– and
the other is a verb – ask.)
The correct phrasing should be: She can either take the exam or ask to be interviewed. (Both are
verbs.)
Due
to is often used in place of because of or as a result of.
However, the correct way to use it is when it follows a noun or pronoun, i.e., in a sentence structure such as
“something is due to...”.
Therefore, the
sentence below is incorrect:
•
Our departure was delayed due to bad weather.
It should be recast
as:
•
The delay in our departure was due to bad weather.
Now test yourself!
How well do you know your conjunctions?
Incorrect conjunctions have been used in
the sentences below. Choose the correct conjunction from the box to correct
each sentence.
but so as or although until if unless and whereas
1.
Vast forests of
trees used to cover the mountain slopes, and
much of them have been cleared for roads.
2.
The old lady spoke
to them in a soft butgentle voice.
3.
Are we going to
walk and take the bus to town?
4.
It was getting
late, while I decided to take a taxi.
5.
Joyce enjoys
listening to pop songs, and her
husband prefers classical music.
6.
While it
was raining, we decided to cancel
our plans to visit the zoo.
7.
Unless you
do not try, you will not succeed.
8.
Unless James
knows he’s wrong, he won’t admit it.
9. Wait when
your mother comes back.
10.
She won’t go to the
party before she gets a lift from a
friend.
ANSWERS
1.
Vast forests of
trees used to cover the mountain slopes, but
much of them have been cleared for roads.
– but
introduces a contrary idea. The trees used to cover the mountain slopes but no
longer do so.
2.
The old lady spoke
to them in a soft andgentle voice.
– and
provides a similar positive aspect of the old lady’s voice.
3.
Are we going to
walk or take the bus to town?
– or indicates the choices available to the
speaker and his friend/s.
4.
It was getting
late, so I decided to take a taxi.
– so indicates a consequence of the
preceding clause.
5.
Joyce enjoys
listening to pop songs, whereas her
husband prefers classical music.
– whereas introduces a clause that has a contrasting idea.
6. As it was raining, we decided to cancel our plans to visit the zoo.
– As suggests that the clause provides a
reason.
7.
If you
do not try, you will not succeed.
– If indicates a likely possibility or
condition.
8.
Although James
knows he’s wrong, he won’t admit it.
– Although
expresses a concession, that there is something positive and negative in the
same sentence.
9.
Wait until your mother comes back.
– until indicates a specific time.
10.
She won’t go to the
party unless she gets a lift from a
friend.
– unless indicates a condition.
